PR Applied Research

Methods & Sampling Issues:

Social and Market Research,
Opinion Polls, Publicity
Measurement
Quantitative
Questionnaire Survey opinion polls, market
research probability sampling,
representativeness
Experimental laboratory before/after;
pre/post
Content analysis measuring media coverage
and level of publicity

Qualitative
Focus group market research, advertising,
political campaigns
One-on-one interviews
Case study
Participant observation
Ethnography combination of methods
Semiotic analysis relevance for applied
research?
Discourse analysis relevance?

Sampling, Population

Population: theoretically specified aggregation of
the elements in a study
Sampling: Selecting units/elements of
observation from population
Probability and non-probability samples
Probability involves study of large population ,
random selection, representativeness and
external generalization from sample to larger
population
Non probability involves specific topic and
specific/small population and internal
generalization

Non Probability Sampling
Design
Convenience-reliance on available subjects
Purposive/judgmental- close to study needs
Quota based on matrix, comparison and
elimination
Generalization to concepts and
theory/internal generalization relevance to
applied research?



Probability Sampling
EPSEM equal probability of selection method
A sample design in which each member of a
population has the same chance of being
selected into the sample.
Sampling frame: a list or quasi list that includes all
members of the population used to identify
sample
Sampling error
Random selection flipping coin, rolling dice,
random digit-dialing
Generalizable to wider population/external
generalization


Probability Sampling Designs
1. Simple random: units composing a population are
assigned numbers. A set of random numbers is
generated and the units having those number are
included in the sample (use table of random numbers)
2. Systematic sampling: list of elements required; every
kth element in the list is chosen systematically
(sampling interval (k) = dividing size of population by
desired size of sample)
10,000 pop 1,000 sample size = select every 10
th
.
First element at random between 1 and 10 and then
every 10
th
following- systematic sample with random
start

3. Stratified Sampling: the grouping of
units/elements in a population into
homogeneous groups (strata) before
sampling; it can be used in conjunction with
simple random, systematic or cluster
4. Multistage Cluster Sampling: population of
state, city, nation not easy to list e.g.
i. sample of taman/residence/apts
ii. Create list of people living on each
iii. Subsample the people on each
Sampling TEXT
Tahap-tahap persampelan
Define Parameters/Tentukan ruanglingkup kajian
Tahap 1
Medium filem, radio, TV, newspaper, Internet, mobile
Tahap 2
Type of content- news, drama, blog, FB, conversation,
advertisement, PR campaign etc
Tahap 3
Sampling of content e.g. news hard/soft, political,
front page, pictures etc

Textual Sampling Method

Non-probability non-RANDOM/BUKAN RAWAK
1. Purposive
2. Convenience what is available
3. Quota matrix, comparing and or eliminating
No generalizations to wider population
Generation to concepts and theory/internal
generalization
Probability RANDOM/RAWAK
1. Simple random
2. Systematic random
3. Stratified random
4. Multistage Cluster random
Generalizable to wider population/external generalization



Key Reference
Babbie, E. (2004) The Practice of Social
Research. 10
th
ed. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, pp.178-217
Bertrand, I and P. Hughes (2005) Media
Research Methods. Basingstoke, Hampshire:
Palgrave Macmillan