1 Soil Mechanics Revision-1

Applied Geotechnics
Soil Mechanics Review

1
Applied Geotechnics
Hossein Taiebat
Room CE 502
E-mail: h.taiebat@unsw.edu.au
Applied Geotechnics
3
Soil Behaviour
A look at how weve got at this point:
Origin of soils and rocks (Geology)
Phase relationships
Stress in soil, effective stress concept
Seepage and flow of water in soil
Consolidation settlement, rate of consolidation
Shear strength of soils
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ORIGIN OF SOIL AND
ROCK
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5
Nature of soil and rock:
Geology
Minerals
Rocks
Rock formations:
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Soil formations
Derived mainly from the weathering of rocks
Complex material with different properties to other engineering
materials
Origin of Soil
IGNEOUS
Heat, Pressure
Weathering,
Transportation, Lithification
Top soil
Subsoil
Transition
Bedrock
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Origin of Soil
Nature of soil and rock:
Geology
Minerals
Rocks
Rock formations:
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Soil formations
Derived mainly from the weathering of rocks
Complex material with different properties to other engineering
materials
Behaviour is affected by its minerals, loading history, grain size,
Consisting of solid particles and voids
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Clay
Three main minerals:
Kaolinite (weathered tropical soil)
Strong bond
A particle may have 100 stacks
Resists water penetration and ions
Si
Al
Hydrogen bond +
Van der waals forces
Does not absorb
water, thus little
swell on wetting
Silica
Gibbsite
Clay minerals:
Complex aluminium silicates:
Two basic units:
Silica tetrahedron (SiO
4
)
Alumina octahedron (Al (OH)
3
)
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Clay
Clay minerals:
Two basic units:
4
)
3
)
Illite (moderate rainfall areas)
Moderate water absorbent

Silica
Gibbsite
Si
Al
Si
K ions -> minor affinity
with water, fixed ions
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Clay
Clay minerals:
Two basic units:
4
)
3
)
Montmorillonite (arid area)
Highly water absorbent
Silica
Gibbsite
Si
Al
Si
Loosely held H
2
O and
exchangeable metallic ions
Swells on wetting
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Clay
Clay minerals:
Two basic units:
4
)
3
)
Montmorillonite (arid area)
Engineering properties:

Minerals
Specific
surface area
Plasticity Shrink / swell Friction Permeability
Kaolinite
Illite
Montmorillonite
15 m
2
/g
80 m
2
/g
800 m
2
/g
Lowest

Highest
Lowest

Highest
Highest
l
Lowest
Lowest

Highest
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PHASE RELATIONSHPS
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Phases
Soil consists of solid particles and voids
Voids may be filled with water and/or air
Voids affect the engineering properties of soils
Soil grain
Void
Water
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Phases
Soil consists of solid particles and voids
Voids may be filled with water and/or air
Voids affect the engineering properties of soils
Soil grain
Air
Water
3 phases of soil
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Definitions
Soil grain
Air
Water
It is not the actual volumes that are important but rather the
ratios between the volumes of the different phases.
V
a
V
w
V
s
V
v
Void ratio (e)

s
v
V
V
e=
Degree of saturation (S
r
)

v
W
r
V
V
S =
Moisture content:
s
w
W
W
m=
s
r
G
S . e
m=
s
w
M
M
=
For saturated soil, S
r
=100%
s
G
e
m= m 65 . 2 e =
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SOIL CLASSIFICATION
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Major Soil Types
Based on grain size:
Coarse grained (granular) soils:
Visible to naked eyes: sands, gravels.
Fine grained soils:
Silts, clays, and organic soils.

Based on major properties:
Cohesive soils
Clays
Cohesionless soils
Silts, Sands, Gravels
Grain size (mm)
0.06 0.002 Silt
0.002 - Clay
2 0.06 Sand
60 2 Gravel
Max Min
Soil type
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Particle size (mm)
F
i
n
e
r

%

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Grain Size Distribution
Clay Silt Sand Gravel Cobbles
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
W
P
U
C
F
Sieve Hydrometer
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Classification is purely based on LL and PI (or I
P
)
Fine Soils
ML
CL-ML
CL
CH
OH
or
MH
OL
or
ML
Liquid Limit
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
10
20
30`
40
50
60
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
i
t
y

I
n
d
e
x

C: Clay
M: Silt
O: Organic
L: Low plasticity
H: High plasticity
Clay
Silt
High
Plasticity Low
Plasticity
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STRESS IN SOIL
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t

=0
Stresses in Dry Soil
z
W
o
v

W =
d
z A
W = o
v
A
o
v
=
d
z
q
+q
o
h

o
h
= K
o
ov
K
o
= Coefficient of lateral earth pressure
at rest
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Stresses in Saturated Soil
Effective stress concept:
W
W
Soil loaded
by an applied
weight W
Soil loaded
by water
weighing W
Saturated soil
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W
Soil loaded
by an applied
weight W
Soil loaded
by water
weighing W
W
Compression No deformation
Deformation is a function of the stresses applied to the soil.
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V
w
+V
s
s
-V
s
w
V
s
F=V
w
w
=V
w
w
+V
s
(
s
-

w
)
F= F
w
+ F

Inter-granular
force
F`

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V
w
F`

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V
w
+V
soil
sat
-V
soil
w
V
soil
F = V
w
w
=V
w
w
+V
soil
(
sat
-

w
)
F

= F
w
+ F

F = F - F
w
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o'
v
= o
v
- u

Effective
stress

Total
stress

Pore water
pressure =
w
z
w
o'
h
= K
o
o'
v
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest

o
h
= o'
h
+ u

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u
u
u
u
o'

o

o

o'

o'

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SETTLEMENT &
CONSOLIDATION
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Real Soil Behaviour
Pressure (kPa)
e

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

1

10

100

1000

Re-compression
or swelling line

Slope C
r
Compression line

Slope C
c
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Pressure (kPa)
e

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

1

10

100

1000

Slope C
r
Re-compression
or swelling line

Slope C
r
Compression line

Slope C
c
o'
o
Ideal Soil Behaviour
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Pressure (kPa)
e

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

1

10

100

1000

Ideal Soil Behaviour
Normally consolidated
(on the line)

Over-consolidated

Soil is normally consolidated if
the current stress in the soil is the
maximum ever experienced by
the soil.
Soil is over-consolidated if it has
been subjected to a larger stress
than the current stress.
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Coefficient of Volume Change
Defines the rate of volume change around a specific
stress range:
In one dimensional settlement problems:

'
H / H
m
o
v
o A
A
=
Or:

'
) e 1 /( e
m
o
v
o A
+ A
=
Unit: (kPa
-1
)

m
v
depends on stress level.
It is not a constant property of soil.
'
V / V
m
v
o A
A
=
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Settlement Calculation
Two methods to estimate the consolidation
settlement:
Using the slopes of the bilinear e-logo plot
Using the coefficient of volume change, m
v
:
'
H / H
m
o
v
o A
A
=
AH = m
v
Ao
o
H
o

S
tf
=AH
o
o
H
e 1
e
+
A
=
)
'
'
log( C e
i
f
r
o
o
= A
For over-consolidated soils
)
'
'
log( C e
i
f
c
o
o
= A For normally consolidated soils
Can use average conditions at mid-layer.
Can divide the layer into sub-layers:
A =
tf tf
S S
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Rate of Settlement
Settlement of granular soils is instantaneous.
Settlement of fine grained soils occur over a long
time.
Sand
q
Ao
q
Ao'
t
Ao, Au, Ao
Clay
q
Ao
Ao'
t
Ao, Au, Ao
Au
Au
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Consolidation Model
water
Tap, as soil
permeability
Spring, as
soil skeleton
q
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Consolidation
Conditions at the beginning and the end of
consolidation can be calculated.
q
Au
Ao'
What is the conditions during the process of
consolidation?
Consolidation process may take a long time.
Effective stress and settlement need to be determined
during the consolidation process.
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Calculation of Settlement
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

U

(
%
)

Dimensionless time, T
v
00

40

60

20

80

100

Approximate equations for degree of consolidation:
) 2 . 0 T (
T 4
U
v
v
s
t
=
) 2 . 0 T ( e
8
1 U
v
4 / T
2
v
>
t
=
t
0.197
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SHEAR STRENGTH OF
SOIL
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Introduction
Soil strength needs to be evaluated in many problems.
A failure surface can be identified in many cases along
which shear stress reaches the shear strength of soil.
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
Soil generally fails in shear.
o
n
t
t
f
A failure : t = t
f
o
n
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Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
A simple model:
Based on friction only
N
F
F
N
A failure : F = N
o
= tan o
F = N tan o

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N
F
F
N
A failure : F = N
= tan o
F = N tan o

o
N
F
F
N
A failure : F = N
= tan |
F = N tan |

Failure plane

A simple model:
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N
F
F
N
A failure : F = N
= tan o
F = N tan o

o
o
n
t
t
f
o
n
A failure : t
f
= o
n
tan |

Failure plane

A simple model:
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46
F
F
A failure : F = F
a

t
t
f
A failure : t
f
= c

Failure plane

A simple model:
Based on cohesion only
c = soil cohesion

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Failure plane

N
F
F
N
A failure : F = N +F
a
= tan o
F = N tan o+F
a

o
o
n
t
t
f
o
n
A failure : t
f
= o
n
tan | + c

A simple model:
Based on friction and cohesion
Failure plane

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Shear strength of soil has 2 components:
Friction
Cohesion
t
f
= c + o
n
tan |

t
f
= shear strength of soil
o
n
= normal stress on failure plane
c = soil cohesion (unit of stress), a soil property
| = friction angle of soil grains, a soil property
Cohesion and friction angle are measures of shear
strength
Higher the values, higher the shear strength.
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Friction
Cohesion
t
f
= c + o
n
tan |

Graphical representation:
t
o
|
o
n
c
o
n
tan |
t
f

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Friction
Cohesion
t
f
= c + o
n
tan |

t
o o
n
t
t
f

t < t
f
Safe

|
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Friction
Cohesion
t
f
= c + o
n
tan |

t
o o
n
t
t
f

t = t
f
Failure

|
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Friction
Cohesion
t
f
= c + o
n
tan |

t
o
|
t < t
f
Safe stress state

Impossible stress state

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t
o
|
o
n
t
o
h
o
n
t
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t
o
|
o
n
t
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t
o
|
o
n
t
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t
o
|
o
n
t
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57
t
o
|
o
n
t
A stress state at a point is safe if the state of stress
acting on any arbitrary plane passing through the
point is under the failure envelope.
The Mohr-circle of stresses at the point must be under the
failure envelope.
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In terms of principal stresses:
t
o
o
3
o
1
|
(o, t)

2
cot c
2
sin
3 1
3 1
o + o
+ |
o o
= |
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
| +
o = o
sin 1
cos
c 2
sin 1
sin 1
3 1
) 2 / 45 tan( c 2 ) 2 / 45 ( tan
2
3 1
| + + | + o = o
| |
+ o = o N c 2 N
3 1
(o
1
- o
3
) / 2
) 2 / 45 ( tan N
2
| + =
|
(o
1
+ o
3
) / 2 c cot|
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Development of failure:
t
o
o
1
|
o
3
o
1
o
3
o
1
= o
3
o
1
> o
3
o
1
o
1
o
1
o
1
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60
Cohesionless Soils
Strength criterion
t
f
= o'
n
tan |

Always effective normal stress is used, o'
n
.
Friction angle, |, can be measured:
In the lab using direct shear test
In the field, using
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
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Direct Shear Test Apparatus
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Cohesive Soils
Strength is related to consolidation process and
loading speed.
o
f
, u
ss
,
o'=o'
f

In-situ

Immediately
after loading

Long term
after loading

o
v
=o
o
, u
ss
,
o'=o'
o
o
f
, u
ss
, u
xs
,
o'=o'
o

Same strength

Different strength

Drained strength

Undrained strength

Varying strength

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Cohesive Soils
Strength is related to consolidation process and
loading speed.
Cohesive soils have low permeability.
If load is applied quickly, soil deforms under undrained
conditions.
If load is applied slowly, or long time after loading, soil
deforms under drained conditions.
The strength of soil will continuously change during the
consolidation process.
The undrained and drained strengths are the two
extremes of soil shear strength.
Undrained and drained strength parameters can be
obtained from laboratory tests.
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64
Drained Shear Strength
Used to assess soil strength a long time after loading
or where the failure is deemed to occur slowly.
Strength criterion
t
f
= c' + o'
n
tan |'

t
f
o'
n
= effective normal stress on failure plane
c' = drained soil cohesion

= 0 for normally consolidated clays
|' = drained soil friction angle
t
o'
c'
|'
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65
Undrained Shear Strength
Used to assess soil strength immediately after loading
or where the failure is deemed to occur quickly.
Strength criterion
t
f
= c
u
+ o
n
tan |
u

t
f
o
n
= total normal stress on failure plane
c
u
= undrained soil cohesion (apparent value)
|
u
= undrained soil friction angle (apparent value)

= 0 for saturated clays
c
u
|
u
t
o
In some cases it is more convenient to use a criterion
based on total stresses since the pore pressure is
unknown.
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66
Triaxial tests can be used to
obtained all strength
parameters for different soils.
Different radial and axial
pressure can be applied.
The applied stresses are the
principal stresses.
Pore water pressure inside the
sample can be controlled.
Drained and undrained behaviour
of the soil can be simulated.
Triaxial Test
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67
water
Triaxial Test
porous
stones
Impervious
rubber
membrane
O-ring
Drainage valve
Cell pressure
Deviator load
Soil
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Triaxial Test
Cell pressure
(o
r
or o
3
)
Deviator load
Deviator stress
All tests have 2 loading phases:
Application of cell pressure
Application of deviator load
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69
Types of Triaxial Tests
There are many test variations depend on the
drainage condition during the 2 phases of loading:
1
st
phase: application of cell pressure:
Drainage valve open; soil sample is consolidated (C).
Drainage valve closed; soil sample is unconsolidated (U).
2
nd
phase: application of deviator load:
Drainage valve open; soil behaves under drained conditions (D).
Drainage valve closed; soil behaves under undrained conditions (U).
Triaxial tests are designated by two letters describing
the drainage conditions of the 2 phases of loading.
The most commonly tests are:
UU (Unconsolidated Undrained)
CU (Consolidated undrained)
CD (Consolidated Drained)
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UU Triaxial Test
Unconsolidated Undrained tests:
Cell pressure is applied while drainage valve is closed
Deviator load is applied while drainage valve is closed
Excess pore pressure exists, usually not measured.
Undrained friction angle for saturated clay, |
u
, is zero.
c
u
is measured from total stress Mohr-circles:
o (kPa)
t (kPa)

c
u
Range of c
u
:
0 for very soft clays to 200kPa for hard clays.
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71
CD Triaxial Test
Consolidated Drained tests:
Cell pressure is applied while drainage valve is open.
Deviator load is applied slowly while drainage valve is open
Excess pore pressure is zero.
c' and |' are measured from effective stress Mohr-
circles:
o' (kPa)
t (kPa)

c'

c'=0 for N.C. clays and about 0-10kPa for O.C. clays.
|' is about 20
o
for high PI clay and 30
o
for low PI clay.
|'

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72
CU Triaxial Test
Consolidated Undrained tests:
Cell pressure is applied while drainage valve is open.
Deviator load is applied while drainage valve is closed.
Excess pore pressure is developed during loading.
c' and |' can be measured from effective stress
Mohr-circles (as the previous slide).
c
u
can be measured from total stress Mohr-circles:
o (kPa)
t (kPa)

c
u1
c
u2
c
u3
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73
CU Triaxial Test
The undrained shear strength (c
u
) is dependent on
the level of effective stress under which the soil has
been consolidated.
It increases as the consolidation stress increases.
Relationship between consolidation stress and undrained
strength for normally consolidated clay is linear.
Consolidation stress
c
u
o (kPa)
t (kPa)

c
u1
c
u2
c
u3
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74
CU Triaxial Test
The undrained shear strength (c
u
) is dependent on
the level of effective stress under which the soil has
been consolidated.
It increases as the consolidation stress increases.
strength for normally consolidated clay is linear.
strength for over-consolidated clay is bi-linear.
Consolidation stress
c
u
O.C.

N.C.

o'
pc
Applied Geotechnics
75
Unconfined Compressive Strength
Unconfined Compressive Strength test:
A quick method of assessing undrained strength.
Soil is loaded quickly while cell pressure is zero.
The deviator stress at failure is defined as UCS of the soil:
o (kPa)
t (kPa)

UCS/2

UCS

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76
Relationship Between Strengths
Effective stress failure envelope:
t
f
= c' + o'
n
tan |'

Applies to soils at failure even under undrained conditions.
Total stress failure envelope:
t
f
= c
u
+ o
n
tan |
u

If a soil fails under the total strength failure criterion, it also
fails under the effective strength failure criterion.
Why dont we use effective strength failure criterion
all the time?
For calculation of effective stresses we need excess pore
pressure, most often dont have it.
|
u
= 0 for unconsolidated saturated clays which simplifies
the analysis
Applied Geotechnics
77

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