In this modulation frequency or phase of carrier is
varied according to the message signal, carrier amplitude is constant.
It can be classified in to 1.Frequency modulation 2.Phase modulation Application of angle modulation 1.Radio broadcasting. 2.TV-sound transmission. 3.Cellular radio. 4.Microwave communication. 5.Sattelite communication Phase Modulation When mod. signal goes positive, the amount of phase lag increases with amplitude of mod.signal.so carrier signal is stretched & or its freq. reduced.
When mod. Signal is negative,phase shift becomes leading. so carrier is compressed. So its freq. increased.
Phase mod. wave is same as the FM.produced by dx(t)/dt i.e.the derivative of X(t) w.r.t.time Phase Modulation We know ec =Ec Cosct -----------------------------1 ec= Ec Cos(2fct+ct) -------------------2 Phase modulation is S(t) = Ec.Cos[2fct+ Kp.Vm(t) ] --------------------3
Frequency modulation The amount by which the carrier signal varies from its unmodulated value is called as deviation.this deviation is proportional to the instantaneus value of modulating signal.
Derivation of FM From above fig.instantaneus freq. of FM is given by F = fc[1+k.Vm.Cosmt] -----------------1 Fc = carrier freq., k= proportionality constant Max.deviation for this signal occures when cosine= 1,under this condition.the inst.freq. is f= fc[1 k.Vm ] ------------------2
Max.deviation = fc.k.Vm -------------------3
Inst.signal of FM-signal is v= Asin[ F(c, m) ]=Asin ---------4
F(c, m) is function of carrier & modulating freq.it represents angle & will be called as for convenience.
is angle traced by the vector A in time t . The angular velocity is from FM equn. = c[1+k.Vm.Cosmt] --------------------------------------------5 to find we have to integrate above eqn. = .dt = c[1+k.Vm.Cosmt] dt. = c*1+kVmCosmt] dt = c(t+ kVmSinmt/m ) = ct+ c.kVmSinmt/m = ct+ fc.kVmSinmt/fm = ct+ /fm Sinmt --------------------------------------------------6 put in eqn.4 we get
V =Asin = Asin[ct+ (/fm) Sinmt ) ---------------------------------7
V= A Sin[ct+ mf. Sinmt ] -----------------------------------------------8
Modulation index = mf.= /fm = unit is Radian
It is imp.to note that mod.freq. decreases & mod.voltage () remains constant,modulation index increases. Frequency Spectrum of FM-Wave From eqn.8 it shows Sine of Sine.it is complex function ,to solve it we have to use Bessel function (J).eqn.8 can be expanded as
It can be seen that o/p consist of carrier & n-number of pair of sideband.each preceded by J-coefficient Formula for Bessel function is Jn(mf) = (mf/2)[1/n! (mf/2)/1!(n+1) ! + (mf/2) 4 /2!(n+2) ! - (mf/2) 6 /3!(n+ 1)!
To calculate carrier,pair of sideband it is necessary to know the value of Bessel function.FM has infinite sideband,as well as carrier.they are seperated from carrier by fm,2fm,3fm .
Bessel function (J Vs modulation index ) Amplitude of Carrier & USB-LSB Sr.no Modulation index Side bands 1 1 3 2 2 4 3 3 6 4 4 7 5 5 8 Max. The no.of sideband having significant amplitude will increase with increase in the value of modulation index. Bandwidth : Ideally B.W of FM is infinite.because infinite sideband transmitted ideally. Practically we have to consider those sideband whose amplitude is greater than 5% of amplitude of unmodulated carrier.strength of spectral component depends on M.I.so B.W is also depends on M.I B.W = 2 fm x number of significant band ------------------------1 Carsons Rule: B.W = 2* +fm .max.+ --------------------------------------------------2 it gives correct result if M.I is greater than 6 Power in FM P= Vc/R = (Ec/2)/R P = Ec/2R ----------------------------------------------a Relation between FM & PM Eqn.for PM S(t) = Ec.Cos[c + Kp.Vm(t)]-------------------1 Now for FM is S(t) = Ec.Cos[c + 2Kf Vm(t)]---------------2
There is little diff.between FM &PM In FM there is integration of modulating signal so if we integrate the mod.signal & apply it to i/p of Phase modulator we will get FM o/p
If we differentiate the mod.signal & apply it to FM-modulator we get phase modulation
Types of FM 1.Narrow Band FM (NBFM): The FM with small B.W is known as NBFM.modulation index is mf. Is small as compared to one radian. Spectrum is consist of carrier,USB & LSB Mathematically NBFM is expressed as Efm =S(t) = EcSinct + mf.Ec/2Sin(c +m)t USB carrier - mf.Ec/2Sin(c -m)t LSB
Permissible freq.deviation up to 5KHZ. Used in Police wireless,ambulanceetc 2.Wideband FM (WBFM) For large value of mf, the FM wave contains carrier & infinite number of sidebands located symmetrically around the carrier. Such FM have infinite B.W & hence it is WBFM.
Modulation index of WBFM is greater than 1.max. permissible deviation is 75 KHZ.
used in Broadcasting application such as FM-radio,TVetc SR.NO Parameters/CHS Wideband FM Narrow band FM 1 Modulation index Greater than 1 Less than or slightly greater than 1 2 Max.deviation 75 KHZ 5 KHZ 3 Range of mod.freq. 30 HZ to 15 KHZ 30 HZ to 3KHZ 4 Max.mod.Index 5 to 2500 Slightly greater than 1 5 B.W Large,15 times more than B.W of NBFM Small same as AM 6 Application Entertainment broadcasting FM mobile commn. Police wireless,Ambulance ..etc 7 Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis Needed Needed Generation of FM 1.Direct Method 2.Indirect method Direct method: a.Varactor Diode modulator b.Reactance modulator i.Capacitive reactance FM-Mod. ii.Inductive reactance modulator 1.Varactor Diode FM-Modulator Reactance FM -Modulator 1.Capacitive Reactance modulator: Ckt.should satisfy two condition 1. biasing c/n ib<<< Id & 2. Xc>>> R
Zeq. = V/( Ib + Id) but Id >>> Ib, so Zeq. = V/Id -------------------------------------------------------1 Transconductance gm = Id/Vg Id = Vg x gm -------------------------2 Since gate source is reverse biase,no c/n flows through gate.so c/n Ib flows through resistor R Vg = Ib x .R --------------------------------------------------3 Ib = V/(R-JXc) Vg = V.R/(R-JXc) Id = V.R/(R-JXc) x gm -------------------------------------4 put in eqn. 1 Zeq. = V/[V.R.gm/(R-JXc) ] = R-JXc /R.gm Zeq.= 1/gm x [1- j xc /R] since Xc/R >>>1 Zeq.= - jXc/R.gm -----------------------------------------------------------5 This impedance is clearly capacitive reactance,which can be writen as Xc.eq.= Xc/gm.R 1/2f.Ceq. = 1/2f.C.gm.R Ceq. = C.gm.R -------------------------------------------------------------6
Equvalent capacitance across the pt-AA depends on the gm.transconductance of FET.
gm. Depends on gate voltage of FET.
We can vary the gate voltage with modulating signal.
equvalent capacitance vary with modulating signal.
if this ckt. Is connected to the tank ckt. of LC-tank.
so the freq. of that tank ckt. vary with mod . Signal & FM generated Capacitive Reactance modulator: Inductive reactance FM-Modulator Zeq. = V/( Ib + Id) but Id >>> Ib, so Zeq. = V/Id -------------------------------------------------1
Transconductance gm = Id/Vg Id = Vg x gm -------------------------2 Since gate source is reverse biase,no c/n flows through gate.so c/n Ib flows through resistor R Vg = Ib x .R --------------------------------------------------3 Ib = V/(R+JXL) Vg = V.R/(R+JXL) Id = V.R/(R+JXL) x gm -------------------------------------4 put in eqn. 1
Ckt.should satisfy two condition 1. biasing c/n ib<<< Id & 2. XL>>> R Zeq. = V/[V.R.gm/(R+JXL) ] = R+JXL /R.gm Zeq.= 1/gm x [1+ j xL /R] since XL/R >>>1 Zeq.= jXL/R.gm ------------------------------------------------------5 This impedance is clearly inductive reactance,which can be writen as XL.eq.= XL/gm.R 2f.L.eq. = 2f.L/gm.R L.eq. = L/gm.R --------------------------------------------------------6
Equvalent Inductance across the pt-AA depends on the gm.transconductance of FET.
gm. Depends on gate voltage of FET.
We can vary the gate voltage with modulating signal.
equvalent inductance vary with modulating signal.
if this ckt. Is connected to the tank ckt. of LC- tank.
so the freq. of that tank ckt. vary with mod . Signal & FM generated Indirect method: FM.GENERATOR USING ARMSTRONG METHOD From.phaser diag.phase of phasemodulated signal depends on amplitude of DSB-SC signal i.e.amplitude of modulating signal because tan = EDSB/Ec
= EDSB/Ec o/p of mixer is = nfc +nf (n-1)fc = n f + fc Carrier freq. is reduced to its original value & freq.deviation is multiply by factor n which is suitable for transmission. Then this signal is amplified by class-C power amplifier & transmitted through the antenna. Advantages of FM Amplitude of the frequency modulated wave remains unaffected. Large decrease in noise, hence increase in S/N ratio. Noise may reduce by increasing deviation Frequency allocation allows for a guard band which reduces adjacent channel interference. FM permits several independent transmitters on the same frequency with negligible interference.
Disadvantages: 1.B.W is large 2.FM TX-RX are complex. 3. FM wave cant cover large area. 4.Transmitting & receiving equipments for FM are costly.
APPLICATION OF FM 1.Radio broadcasting 2.Sound broadcasting in TV 3.Sattellite commn. 4.Point to point commn. 5.Police wireless 6. FM is used in many radio stations (FM Radio Stations) all over the world. Normally the frequency range of FM channels are between 88.0 MHz - 108.0 MHz.
Effect of noise in FM & PM When FM/PM travels from TX to RX.noise gets added in to the signal.as shown above.
Due to this noise amplitude of the FM/PM wave gets distorted.
In FM/PM w/v does not contain the information in their amplitude variation at all.
Hence noise can not distort the information contained in FM/PM.
So FM/PM are more noise resistance EFFECT OF NOISE/NOISE TRIANGLE Consider a single noise voltage having a freq.which falls in the passband of the reciever. This noise voltage will mix with the carrier to produce interference. Noise vector is superimposed on carrier vector & it is rotating at a relative angular velocity (n-c).due to this the amplitude & phase of the carrier will change. The amplitude & phase angle of resultant shown in fig.will keep changing due to the relative rotation of the noise vector.
Max.deviation in the amplitude = Vn Max.deviation in phase = =Sin-1(Vn/Vc) Amplitude & phase both change due to noise AM is affected by amplitude change in the carrier due to noise FM is affected by phase change of carrier due to noise Effect of modulating Frequency/FM-Noise
1.In AM-the change in noise freq.or change in mod.freq. does not effect the signal to noise ratio, hence we get a rectangular distribution for AM. 2.In FM this effect is different: The noise phase modulates the carrier. 3 The effect of modulating freq. The phase modulation of carrier can be expressed
= tan-1[VnA/Vc] ----------------------------------------------------1 VnA =Perpendicular noise component 4.For phase modulated signal the inst.phase angle (t) is expressed as (t) = c + t -------------------------------------------------------2
c = Carrier phase angle t = Inst.change in phase angle with time
Differentiate eqn.2 we get d (t) /dt = d c/dt + dt /dt ----------------------------------------3 Inst.angular freq. is i= d (t) /dt = d c/dt + dt /dt ---------4 c= d c/dt pt= d t/dt =angular freq.deviation due to phase mod. i = c + pt ----------------------------------------------------------5 pt= d t/dt 2fpt = d t/dt fp(t)= 1/2 x d t/dt ----------------------------------------------6 Fp(t) = freq.deviation due to phase mod. produced by noise FM-Reciever produces an o/p voltage is proportional to this freq.deviation.this is unwanted o/p voltage it is treated as noise .
The noise in the FM receiver is proportional to mod freq.
If mod freq. decreases the modulation index increases, noise to signal ratio goes on decreasing.
Effect of noise in FM is higher at high mod.freq.
Effect of noise in FM is higher at lower mod.index.
At lower mod freq. M.I is higher so less noise effect in FM. PRE-EMPHASIS It has been proved that in FM ,the noise having greater effect on higher modulating freq. This effect can be reduced by increasing modulation index.(mf).for higher modulating freq. This can be done by increasing the deviation & it can be increased by increasing the amplitude of modulating signal.& higher mod.freq. If we boost the amplitude of high freq.mod freq.signal.artificially Then it could be possible to improve the noise immunity at high freq. The artificial boosting of higher modulating freq. is called PRE-EMPHASIS.
When this High freq. mod. Signal passing through the high passfilter as fm incraeses reactance Xc = 1/2fm of capacitor decrease so
modulating voltage increases. so M.I increases at high mod.freq. It is shown in Pre-emphasis characteristic DE-EMPHASIS The artificially boosted high freq.signal are brought to their original amplitude using the De-emphasis. It is low pass filter. RC=75sec The demodulated FM is applied to the DE-EMPHASIS ckt.with increase in fm the reactance of Cap.C decreases & o/p of De-emphasis will also reduce. Comparison of AM- Vs FM Modulating differences: In AM, a radio wave known as "carrier wave" is modulated in amplitude by the signal that is to be transmitted. In FM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or "carrier wave" is modulated in frequency by the signal that is to be transmitted. Importance: It is used in both analog and digital communication and telemetry. It is used in both analog and digital communication and telemetry. Pros and cons: AM has poorer sound quality compared to FM, but is cheaper and can be transmitted over long distances. It has a smaller bandwidth so it can have more stations available in any frequency range. FM is less prone to interference than AM. However, FM signals are impacted by physical barriers. FM has greater sound quality due to higher bandwidth. Stands for: AM stands for Amplitude Modulation FM stands for Frequency Modulation Range: AM radio ranges from 535 to 1705 kilohertz (OR) Up to 1200 Bits per second FM radio ranges in a higher spectrum from 88 to 108 megahertz. (OR) 1200 to 2400 bits per second Bandwidth Requirements: Twice the highest modulating frequency. Twice the sum of the modulating signal frequency and the frequency deviation. Zero crossing in modulated signal: Equidistant not equidistant Complexity: transmitter and receiver are simple but in case of SSBSC AM carrier syncronization is needed transmitter and receiver are more complex . Comparison of AM- Vs FM