Microwaves

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves whose

frequencies range from about 300 MHz 300 GHz
(1 MHz = 10 6 Hz and 1 GHz = 10 9 Hz) or
wavelengths in air ranging from 100 cm 1 mm.

The word Microwave means very short wave,
which is the shortest wavelength region of the radio
spectrum and a part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.


1
2
Microwaves Frequency Bands
Properties of Microwaves
1. Microwave is an electromagnetic radiation of
short wavelength.
2. They can reflect by conducting surfaces just
like optical waves since they travel in straight
line.
3. Microwave currents flow through a thin outer
layer of an ordinary cable.
4. Microwaves are easily attenuated within short
distances.
5. They are not reflected by ionosphere
3
Advantages and Limitations
1. Increased bandwidth availability:
Microwaves have large bandwidths compared to the
common bands like short waves (SW), ultrahigh
frequency (UHF) waves, etc.
For example, the microwaves extending from = 1 cm
- = 10 cm (i.e) from 30,000 MHz 3000 MHz, this
region has a bandwidth of 27,000 MHz.
2. Improved directive properties:
The second advantage of microwaves is their ability to
use high gain directive antennas, any EM wave can be
focused in a specified direction (Just as the focusing of
light rays with lenses or reflectors)
4
Advantages and Limitations
3. Fading effect and reliability:
Fading effect due to the variation in the transmission
medium is more effective at low frequency.
Due to the Line of Sight (LOS) propagation and high
frequencies, there is less fading effect and hence
microwave communication is more reliable.
4. Power requirements:
Transmitter / receiver power requirements are pretty low
at microwave frequencies compared to that at short
wave band.
PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 5
Advantages and Limitations
5.Transparency property of microwaves:

Microwave frequency band ranging from 300
MHz 10 GHz are capable of freely propagating
through the atmosphere.

The presence of such a transparent window in a
microwave band facilitates the study of
microwave radiation from the sun and stars in
radio astronomical research of space.
PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 6
Advantages of microwaves over radio waves
because of high frequency, more data can be sent through
microwaves -> increased bandwidth, higher speeds
because of their short wave length, microwaves use smaller
antennas
smaller antennas produce a more focused beam which is
difficult to intercept
Disadvantages of microwave communication
they require no obstacle is present in the transmission path
the cost of implementing the communication infrastructure is
high
microwaves are susceptible to rain, snow, electromagnetic
interference
Applications
Microwaves have a wide range of applications in
modern technology, which are listed below

1. Telecommunication: Intercontinental Telephone and
TV, space communication (Earth to space and space
to Earth), telemetry communication link for railways
etc.
2. Radars: detect aircraft, track / guide supersonic
missiles, observe and track weather patterns, air traffic
control (ATC), burglar alarms, garage door openers,
police speed detectors etc.

PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 9
Functional Block Diagram of a
Communication System
Input signal
(Audio, Video, Data)
Input Transducer
Transmitter
Output Transducer
Receiver
Output signal
(Audio, Video, Data)
Channel
Electrical System
Wire
or
Wireless
Antenna and Wave Propagation
Surface Wave
Direct Wave
Sky Wave
Satellite
communication
Microwave &
Millimeter Wave
Earth
Ionsphere
Transmitting
Antenna
Receiving
Antenna
Repeaters(Terrestrial communication)
50Km@25fts antenna
12
13
Introduction to waveguides
A Hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting
electromagnetic waves by successive reflections from the inner walls of the
tube is called waveguide.
14


At frequencies higher than 3 GHz, transmission
of electromagnetic energy along the
transmission lines and cables becomes difficult.

This is due to the losses that occur both in the
solid dielectric needed to support the conductor
and in the conductors themselves.

A metallic tube can be used to transmit
electromagnetic wave at the above frequencies
15
Waveguides may be used to carry energy between pieces
of equipment or over longer distances to carry transmitter
power to an antenna or microwave signals from an
antenna to a receiver

Waveguides are made from copper, aluminum or brass.
These metals are extruded into long rectangular or
circular pipes.

An electromagnetic energy to be carried by a waveguide
is injected into one end of the waveguide.

The electric and magnetic fields associated with the signal
bounce off the inside walls back and forth as it progresses
down the waveguide.

16
In order to determine the EM field configuration
within the waveguide, Maxwells equations
should be solved subject to appropriate
boundary conditions at the walls of the guide.

Such solutions give rise to a number of field
configurations. Each configuration is known as
a mode. The following are the different modes
possible in a waveguide system
Components of Electric and Magnetic
Field Intensities in an EM wave
17
O
X
Y
Z
E
x

,
H
x
E
z,
H
z
E
y
,
H
y
Possible Types of modes
18

1. Transverse Electro Magnetic (TEM) wave:
Here both electric and magnetic fields are directed
components. (i.e.) E
z
= 0 and H
z
= 0

2. Transverse Electric (TE) wave: Here only the electric field is purely
transverse to the direction of propagation and the magnetic field is not purely
transverse. (i.e.) E
z
= 0, H
z
0
19
Possible Types of modes
3. Transverse Magnetic (TM) wave: Here only magnetic field is transverse
to the direction of propagation and the electric field is not purely
transverse. (i.e.) E
z
0, H
z
= 0.
4. Hybrid (HE) wave: Here neither electric nor
magnetic fields are purely transverse to the direction of propagation.
(i.e.) E
z
0, H
z
0.
20
PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 21
Rectangular Waveguides

Any shape of cross section of a waveguide
can support electromagnetic waves of
which rectangular and circular waveguides
have become more common.

A waveguide having rectangular cross
section is known as Rectangular
waveguide
PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 22
Rectangular waveguide
Dimensions of the waveguide which determines the operating
frequency range
PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 23
Dimensions of the waveguide which determines the operating frequency
range:
1. The size of the waveguide determines its operating
frequency range.
2. The frequency of operation is determined by the
dimension a.
3. This dimension is usually made equal to one half
the wavelength at the lowest frequency of operation,
this frequency is known as the waveguide cutoff
frequency.
4. At the cutoff frequency and below, the waveguide will
not transmit energy. At frequencies above the cutoff
frequency, the waveguide will propagate energy.
PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 24
Wave paths in a waveguide at various frequencies
Angle of incidence(A) Angle of reflection (B)
(A = B)







(a) At high
frequency
(b) At medium
frequency
( c ) At low frequency
(d) At cutoff frequency
PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 25
Wave propagation

When a probe launches energy into the
waveguide, the electromagnetic fields bounce
off the side walls of the waveguide as shown in
the above diagram.

The angles of incidence and reflection depend
upon the operating frequency. At high
frequencies, the angles are large and therefore,
the path between the opposite walls is relatively
long as shown in Fig.

PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 26

At lower frequency, the angles decrease and the path between the sides
shortens.

When the operating frequency is reaches the cutoff frequency of the
waveguide, the signal simply bounces back and forth directly between the side
walls of the waveguide and has no forward motion.

At cut off frequency and below, no energy will propagate.

PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 27
Cut off frequency

The exact size of the wave guide is selected
based on the desired operating frequency.
The size of the waveguide is chosen so that
its rectangular width is greater than one
half the wavelength but less than the one
wavelength at the operating frequency.
This gives a cutoff frequency that is below
the operating frequency, thereby ensuring
that the signal will be propagated down the
line.

PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 28
It is used for bends, twists or in applications where certain criteria may not be
fulfilled by normal waveguides.
Figure below shows some of the flexible waveguides:









PH0101 Unit 2 Lecture 5 29
To reduce attenuation loss
High frequencies
High power
Can operate only above certain
frequencies
Acts as a High-pass filter
Normally circular or rectangular
We will assume lossless rectangular
30
Applications of Microwave:
1. Telephone communications.
2. Radar
3. Space Communications
4. Heating
ABOUT RADAR
Radar (radio detection and ranging) is an electronic system
for transmitting electromagnetic signals and receiving echoes
from objects of interest (targets).

Most radars work by transmitting a pulse of electromagnetic
energy at a target and then listening with a receiver for the
reflected echo from the target. Since electromagnetic waves
travel at the velocity of light [186,411 miles (300,000
kilometers) per second]
CONTD
The time delay between the transmitted pulse and the
received echo can be used to determine the distance to the
target (distance = speed time).

Radar is standalone system active system having its own
transmitter, receiver, antenna, processor etc.

In radar strong radio waves are transmitted and receiver
listens for scattered echoes very weak but can be amplified
easily.

SIMPLE RADAR DIAGRAM
RADAR FUNCTIONS
TRANSMITTER:
Generate radio waves
Perform modulation
Amplification to high power

RECIEVER:
High sensitivity
Very low noise
Ability to discern a received signal from background noise
CONTD
PROCESSING & CONTROL:
It regulates the rate at which pulses are sent (PRF). Synchronizes the
function between Transmitter, Receiver, display, duplexer etc.

DUPLEXER:
A switch to alternatively connect Tx and Rx to antenna. Protects
receiver from high power of transmitter during transmission it aligns to
transmitter. After pulse has been sent, it aligns antenna to receiver.
CONTD
ANTENNA:
Takes radar pulses from transmitter and puts into the air. Focuses energy
into the well designed beam. Antenna is of two types
1) Physically moving
2) Electronically steered

DISPLAY:
Presents received information to the operator. It is of two types
1) PPI (Plan Position Indicator)
2) A-scope or A-scan
PPI IMAGE
SOME HISTORY
1886-88: Hertz demonstrated the Generation, reception and
scattering of e.m waves.
1903-04: Hulsmeyer developed and patented a primitive form for
ships collision avoidance radar for ships.
1925: Beginning of Pulsed Radars.
1937: CHAIN HOME RADAR SYSTEM in Britain designed by
Prof Watson Watt.
1941: US, FM band Early Warning Radar at Oahu made.
RADAR TYPES
Detection and search radars
Missile guidance systems
Battlefield and reconnaissance radar
Air Traffic Control and navigation
Space and range instrumentation radar systems
Weather-sensing Radar systems
Radars for biological research

MAIN TYPES OF RADAR
There are two main types of radar:

1)Primary Radar

Continuous wave Radar
Pulse Radar

2)Secondary Radar


PRIMARY RADARS
1)CONTINUOS WAVE RADAR:
Continuous-wave radar system is a radar system where a known stable
frequency continuous wave radio energy is transmitted and then received
from any reflecting objects. The return frequencies are shifted away from
the transmitted frequency based on the Doppler effect if they are moving.

The main advantage of the CW radars is that they are not pulsed and simple
to manufacture.

CW radars also have a disadvantage because they cannot measure range.
Range is normally measured by timing the delay between a pulse being
sent and received, but as CW radars are always broadcasting, there is no
delay to measure.


PRIMARY RADARS
2)PULSE RADAR:
The PULSE radar is the more conventional radar, which transmits a burst of
radar energy and then waits for the energy (or echo) to be reflected back to
the antenna. After a specific period of time (depending on how far the radar
is searching) another pulse will be sent followed by another listening
period. Since radar waves travel at the speed of light, range from the return
can be calculated.

BASIC PULSE RADAR TERMS:
Pulse Duration
Pulse Repetition Time
Pulse Repetition Frequency
Listening Time
BASIC RADAR TERMS
1)PULSE DURATION:
The time a radar set is transmitting radio frequency (RF) energy. It is also
referred to as pulse width (PW). Pulse duration is measured in millionths of
a second or microseconds (usec).

2)PULSE REPETITON TIME:
This is the time required to complete one transmission cycle. It is the time
from the beginning of one radar pulse to the beginning of the next. It is the
reciprocal of our next term, Pulse Recurrence Frequency (PRF). This term
represents the period for one transmission cycle.

CONTD
3)PULSE REPETITON FREQUENCY:
The PRF equals the number of pulses per second the radar transmits. If you
want the radar to look at long ranges, a low PRF is required (this allows
time for the radar energy to be reflected by the target and to return to the
antenna before the next pulse is transmitted). For shorter ranges, a higher
PRF can be used.

4)LISTENING TIME:
Listening time is the part of the Rest Time that the radar can receive and
process the echoes of radar returns. It is measured is usec.



Applications of Radar
FIELDS OF APPLICATION
MILITARY
REMOTE SENSING
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
LAW ENFORCEMENT AND HIGHWAY SECURITY
AIRCRAFT SAFETY AND NAVIGATION
SHIP SAFETY
SPACE
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
MILITARY
IMPORTANT PART OF AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM,OPERATION OF
OFFENSIVE MISSILES & OTHER WEAPONS
TARGET DETECTION, TARGET TRACKING & WEAPON CONTROL
TRACKS THE TARGETS, DIRECTS THE WEAPON TO AN INTERCEPT AND
ASSESS THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGAGEMENT
ALSO USED IN AREA, GROUND & AIR SURVEILLANCE.






WEATHER OBSERVATION-T.V.REPORTING
PLANETARY OBSERVATION
BELOW GROUND PROBING
MAPPING OF SEA ICE



REMOTE
SENSING

USED TO SAFELY CONTROL AIR TRAFFIC IN THE VICINITY
OF THE AIRPORTS AND ENROUTE
GROUND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC & AIRCRAFT TAXING
MAPPING OF REGIONS OF RAIN IN THE VICINITY OF
AIRPORTS & WEATHER

AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
RADAR SPEED METERS ARE USED BY POLICE FOR
ENFORCING SPEED LIMITS
IT IS USED FOR WARNING OF PENDING COLLISION,
ACTUATING AIR BAG OR WARNING OF OBSTRUCTION OR
PEOPLE BEHIND A VEHICLE OR IN THE SIDE BLIND ZONE
LAW ENFORCEMENT
&
HIGHWAY SAFETY

AIRBORNE WEATHER AVOIDANCE RADAR OUTLINES THE
REGIONS OF PRECIPITATION & DANGEROUS WIND SHEAR
LOW FLYING MILITARY AIRCRAFTS RELY ON TERRAIN
AVOIDANCE & TERRAIN FOLLOWING RADARS TO AVOID
COLLISION WITH HIGH TERRAIN & OBSTRUCIONS
AIRCRAFT SAFETY
& NAVIGATION

RADAR IS FOUND ON SHIPS & BOATS FOR COLLISION
AVOIDANCE & TO OBSERVE NAVIGATION BUOYS, WHEN THE
VISIBILITY IS POOR
SHORE BASED RADARS ARE USED FOR SURVEILLANCE OF
HARBOURS & RIVER TRAFFIC
SHIP SAFETY

SPACE VEHICLES HAVE USED RADAR FOR CLOCKING & FOR
LANDING ON THE MOON
USED FOR PLANETARY EXPLORATION
GROUND BASED RADARS ARE USED FOR DETECTION &
TRACKING OF SATELLITES & OTHER SPACE OBJECTS
USED FOR RADIO ASTRONOMY
SPACE

IT IS USED FOR NON CONTACT
MEASUREMENT OF SPEED & DISTANCE
USED FOR OIL & GAS EXPLORATION
USED TO STUDY MOVEMENTS OF INSECTS &
BIRDS


OTHER
APPLICATIONS
GPR APPLICATIONS
SHALLOW GPR SURVEYS
LOCATE PIPES AND UTILITIES
BURIED OBJECTS
CEMETERLY & GRAVE LOCATION
DEEP GPR SURVEYS
LANDFILL & TRENCH DELINEATION
BEDROCK DEPTH STUDIES
SINK HOLE LOCATION
HHR APPLICATIONS
SECURITY & BORDER SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM
UNDER GROUND, THROUGH-WALL & OCEAN IMAGING
AUTOMOTIVE SAFETY, INCLUSING COLLISION-AVOIDANCE
& INTELLIGENT CRUISE-CONTROL SYSTEM
SMART DIVICE SUCH AS LIGHTS, HEATERS & TOOLS THAT
AUTOMATICALLY TURN ON OR OFF
MEDICAL DIAGNOSTICS
DAY TO DAY
APPLICATIONS
MICROPOWER
IMPULSE RADAR
SENSORS USED IN
PROXIMITY FUSES
HAVE BEEN
SUCCESSFULLY
TESTED. THE FUSES
TRIGGER SMALL
BOMBS TO
DETONATE AT
ABOUT 1 METER
FROM THE GROUND.
DETONATORS
LIVERMORE
ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGIST USED A
MICROPOWER IMPULSE
RADAR SENSOR
ATTACHED TO AN
EXTENDER TO SEARCH
FOR TRAPPED PEOPLE
THROUGH RUBBLE AT
GROUND ZERO OF THE
WORLD TRADE CENTER
FOLLOWING THE
SEPTEMBER 11, 2001,
TERRORIST ATTACKS.

A LIFE SAVER
A) THE HERMES (HIGH-
PERFORMANCE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
ROADWAY MAPPING AND
EVALUATION SYSTEM)
BRIDGE INSPECTOR IS A
RADAR-BASED SENSING
SYSTEM MOUNTED IN A
TRAILER. (B) THE ARRAY OF
64 RADAR MODULES
LOCATED BENEATH THE
TRAILER PRODUCES IMAGES
OF THE INSIDES OF BRIDGE
DECKS. (C) THIS IMAGE
SHOWS A SUSPECT AREA
WHERE A DELAMINATION IN
THE CONCRETE MAY HAVE
OCCURRED.


HERMES- ROAD
MAINTAINANCE
THIS VEHICLE TOWS THE
ANTENNA TRANSCEIVER
GROUP (ATG) WITH THE
INTEGRATED MODULAR
AZIMUTH POSITIONING
SYSTEM (MAPS) MOUNTED ON
THE TRAILER. THIS IS
CONTROLLED BY AN OPERATOR
EITHER LOCATED WITHIN THE
SHELTER OR REMOTELY
LOCATED
GHANTA
TUNNEL WALL INSPECTION
MINE INSPECTION
LOCATING UNDER GROUND
PIPES
LOCATING GRAVE
Homeland Security Applications
Potential Security Applications
Detection of hidden weapons and explosives
Detecting non-metallic weapons
Postal screening of envelopes for bacteria
Chem/bio detection
Security screening wand
Explosives
Stand-off detection
Postal screening
Envelope
Terahertz Images Can Reveal Objects Concealed
Under Cloth, Paper, Tape, Even Behind Walls
Objects Concealed Under clothes Knife Wrapped in Newspaper
Microwave Applications

Wireless Charging of Mobile
Phones Using Microwaves
69
INTRODUCTION
Mobile phones becoming basic part of life

Recharging of mobile phones is a big problem

Objectiveto recharge any mobile phone independent of
manufacturer and battery make

Achieved by recharging battery while talking using
microwaves


70
CONTD
More you talk more the mobile get charged!

No separate mobile charger

Removal of talk time and battery stand by from mobile
specifications

Additives to mobile handsets:
Sensor
Rectenna

71
WHATS HAPPENING?

Microwave signal is transmitted from transmitter along
with message signal using slotted waveguide antenna at
frequency 2.45 GHz

Charging made universal
72
73
Microwave region of
electromagnetic spectrum
We choose s band of microwave region(2-4GHz)

74
Designation Frequency range
L Band 1 to 2 GHz
S Band 2 to 4 GHz
C Band 4 to 8 GHz
X Band 8 to 12 GHz
Ku Band 12 to 18 GHz
K Band 18 to 26 GHz
Ka Band 26 to 40 GHz
Q Band 30 to 50 GHz
U Band 40 to 60 GHz
FREQUENCY SELECTION

Select license free 2.45 GHz Industrial, Scientific and
Medical (ISM) radio bands

ISM bands are reserved internationally for non-
commercial use of RF electromagnetic fields for
industrial, scientific and medical purpose

75
Principle of Operation &
Block Diagram
Transmitting
station with the
microwave
transmitter
sensor
Rectenna
RF cable
circulator
waveguide
Slotted waveguide
Antenna
mobile signal
The microwave signal is transmitted along
with message signal using slotted wave
guide antenna.

The sensor search for the mobile signal ,
in addition it has a RECTENNA.

Rectenna receives the transmitted power
and converts the microwave power to DC
power.



TRANSMITTER
The MAGNETRON is a self-contained microwave
oscillator.

Efficiency of this high power oscillator lies between
50% and 80%.

Electron
beam
Energy
Microwav
e Energy
Cross Field
Device
Slotted waveguide
antenna
It is used as ideal power
transmitter (because of its
high aperture efficiency
>95%) .

It has high power handling
capacity .

It has 64 slots of power
uniformly through free
space to the rectenna.

SENSORS
The sensor circuitry is a simple circuit, which detects if the mobile
phone receives any message signal. This is required, as the phone
has to be charged as long as the user is talking. Thus a simple F to V
converter would serve our purpose.

A simple yet powerful F to V converter is LM2907. Using LM2907
would greatly serve our purpose. It acts as a switch for triggering
the rectenna circuitry

RECTENNA
A rectifying antenna called a rectenna receives the
transmitted power and converts the microwave power to
direct current (DC) power.

This demonstration rectenna consists of 6 rows of dipoles
antennas where 8 dipoles belong to each row. Each row is
connected to a rectifying circuit which consists of low pass
filters and a rectifier.

The rectifier is a GaAs Schottky barrier diode that is
impedance matched to the dipoles by a low pass filter. The
diode rectifies the current induced in the antenna by the
microwaves.
A simple rectenna element consists of a dipole antenna with an RF diode connected
across the dipole elements. The diode rectifies the AC current induced in the antenna by
the microwaves, to produce DC power, which powers a load connected across the
diode. Schottky diodes are usually used because they have the lowest voltage drop and
highest speed and therefore have the lowest power losses due to conduction and
switching. Large rectennas consist of an array of many such dipole elements.
RECTENNA DESIGN
Implementation
Recently NOKIA has launched this wireless charging
technology in its new recent mobile model NOKIA LUMIA
1020.

Energy efficient chargers of all size and shape to match our
phone.

They are all quiet compactable , which means we can use
any chargers as we like.
Advantages
The need of different types of
chargers by different manufacturers
is totally eliminated
Lower risk of ELECTRICAL
SHOCK or shorting.
Convenience.
Wireless energy transfers can
potentially recharge the mobile
phones without chords.

Disadvantages
Wireless transmission of the energy
causes some drastic effects to human
body, because of its radiation
Process is of high cost.