Basic electronics

Light emitting diode (LED)

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A light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a PN junction
opto-semiconductor that emits a monochromatic (single color) light
when operated in a forward biased direction.
LEDs convert electrical energy into light energy. They are
frequently used as "pilot" lights in electronic appliances to indicate
whether the circuit is closed or not.
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About LEDs (1/2)
The most important part of a light emitting diode (LED) is the
semi-conductor chip located in the center of the bulb as shown at the
right. The chip has two regions separated by a junction. The p region
is dominated by positive electric charges, and the n region is
dominated by negative electric charges. The junction acts as a barrier
to the flow of electrons between the p and the n regions. Only when
sufficient voltage is applied to the semi-conductor chip, can the
current flow, and the electrons cross the junction into the p region.
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How Does A LED Work? (1/2)
When sufficient voltage is applied to the
chip across the leads of the LED, electrons can
move easily in only one direction across the junction
between the p and n regions.

In the p region there are many more
positive than negative charges.

When a voltage is applied and the current
starts to flow, electrons in the n region have
sufficient energy to move across the junction into
the p region.
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How Does A LED Work? (2/2)
Each time an electron recombines
with a positive charge, electric potential
energy is converted into electromagnetic
energy.

For each recombination of a negative
and a positive charge, a quantum of
electromagnetic energy is emitted in the
form of a photon of light with a frequency
characteristic of the semi-conductor material
(usually a combination of the chemical
elements gallium, arsenic and phosphorus)..

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Testing LEDs
Never connect an LED directly to a
battery or power supply! It will be destroyed
almost instantly because too much current will
pass through and burn it out.

LEDs must have a resistor in series to
limit the current to a safe value, for quick
testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for
most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less.

Remember to connect the LED the
correct way round!
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Applications
Sensor Applications
Mobile Applications
Sign Applications
Automative Uses
LED Signals
Illuminations
Indicators
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Sensor Applications
Medical Instrumentation
Bar Code Readers
Color & Money Sensors
Encoders
Optical Switches
Fiber Optic Communication




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Mobile Applications
Mobile Phone
PDA's
Digital Cameras
Lap Tops
General Backlighting

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Sign Applications
Full Color Video
Monochrome Message Boards
Traffic/VMS
Transportation - Passenger Information


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Automative Applications
Interior Lighting - Instrument Panels & Switches, Courtesy Lighting
Exterior Lighting - CHMSL, Rear Stop/Turn/Tail
Truck/Bus Lighting - Retrofits, New Turn/Tail/Marker Lights

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Signal Appications
Traffic
Rail
Aviation
Tower Lights
Runway Lights
Emergency/Police Vehicle Lighting

LEDs offer enormous benefits over traditional incandescent lamps
including:

Energy savings (up to 85% less power than incandescent)
Reduction in maintenance costs
Increased visibility in daylight and adverse weather conditions

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Illumination (1/2)
Architectural Lighting
Signage (Channel Letters)
Machine Vision
Retail Displays
Emergency Lighting (Exit Signs)
Neon Replacement
Bulb Replacements
Flashlights
Outdoor Accent Lighting - Pathway, Marker Lights
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Illumination (2/2)
LEDs not only consume far less electricity than traditional
forms of illumination, resulting in reduced energy costs, but require
less maintenance and repair. Studies have shown that the use of LEDs
in illumination applications can offer:
Greater visual appeal
Reduced energy costs
Increased attention capture
Savings in maintenance and lighting replacements
As white LED technology continues to improve, the use of
LEDs for general illumination applications will become more prevalent in
the industry.

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Indication
Household appliances
VCR/ DVD/ Stereo and other audio and video devices
Toys/Games
Instrumentation
Security Equipment
Switches
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Driving LEDs
Analog LED Drive Circuits
Digital LED Drive Circuits

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Colours of LEDs (1/3)
LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and
white. Blue and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other
colours. The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor
material, not by the colouring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of
all colours are available in uncoloured packages which may be diffused
(milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The coloured packages
are also available as diffused (the standard type) or transparent.
LEDs are made from gallium-based
crystals that contain one or more additional
materials such as phosphorous to produce a
distinct color. Different LED chip
technologies emit light in specific regions
of the visible light spectrum and produce
different intensity levels.
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Colours of LEDs (2/3)
Tri-colour LEDs

The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green
LED combined in one package with three leads. They are called tri-
colour because mixed red and green light appears to be yellow and this
is produced when both the red and green LEDs are on.

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Colours of LEDs (3/3)
Bi-colour LEDs

A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in
'inverse parallel' (one forwards, one
backwards) combined in one package with two
leads. Only one of the LEDs can be lit at one
time and they are less useful than the tri-
colour LEDs described above.
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LED Performance (1/8)
Color
White light
Intensity
Eye safety information
Visibility
Operating Life
Voltage/Design Current
LED performance is based on a few primary characteristics:
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LED Performance (2/8)
Colour

Peak wavelength is a function of the LED chip material.
Although process variations are 10 NM, the 565 to 600 NM
wavelength spectral region is where the sensitivity level of the
human eye is highest. Therefore, it is easier to perceive color
variations in yellow and amber LEDs than other colors.

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LED Performance (3/8)
White Light

When light from all parts of the visible spectrum overlap one
another, the additive mixture of colors appears white. However, the
eye does not require a mixture of all the colors of the spectrum to
perceive white light. Primary colors from the upper, middle, and
lower parts of the spectrum (red, green, and blue), when combined,
appear white.

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LED Performance (4/8)
Intensity

LED light output varies with the type of chip, encapsulation,
efficiency of individual wafer lots and other variables. Several LED
manufacturers use terms such as "super-bright," and "ultra-bright to
describe LED intensity. Such terminology is entirely subjective, as there
is no industry standard for LED brightness.

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LED Performance (5/8)

Eye Safety

The need to place eye safety labeling on LED products is
dependent upon the product design and the application. Only a few
LEDs produce sufficient intensity to require eye safety labeling.
However, for eye safety, do not stare into the light beam of any LED
at close range
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LED Performance (6/8)
Visibility
Luminous intensity (Iv) does not represent the total light
output from an LED. Both the luminous intensity and the spatial
radiation pattern (viewing angle) must be taken into account. If two
LEDs have the same luminous intensity value, the lamp with the larger
viewing angle will have the higher total light output.
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LED Performance (7/8)
Operating Life
Because LEDs are solid-state devices they are not subject to
catastrophic failure when operated within design parameters. DDP
LEDs are designed to operate upwards of 100,000 hours at 25C
ambient temperature. Operating life is characterized by the
degradation of LED intensity over time. When the LED degrades to half
of its original intensity after 100,000 hours it is at the end of its useful
life although the LED will continue to operate as output diminishes.
Unlike standard incandescent bulbs, DDP LEDs resist shock and
vibration and can be cycled on and off without excessive degradation.
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LED Performance (8/8)
Voltage/Design Current

LEDs are current-driven devices, not voltage driven. Although
drive current and light output are directly related, exceeding the
maximum current rating will produce excessive heat within the LED chip
due to excessive power dissipation. The result will be reduced light
output and reduced operating life.
LEDs that are designed to operate at a specific voltage contain a
built-in current-limiting resistor. Additional circuitry may include a
protection diode for AC operation or full-bridge rectifier for bipolar
operation. The operating current for a particular voltage is designed to
maintain LED reliability over its operating life.
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Bargraph 7-segment Starburst Dot matrix
Some Types of LEDs
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Principle of
LCD Display
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1. Whats Liquid Crystals (LC)
intermediary substance between a liquid and solid
state of matter.
e.g. soapy water
light passes through liquid crystal changes when it is
stimulated by an electrical charge.
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Examples of LCs
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2. Introduction to Liquid Crystal Displays
Consists of an array of tiny segments (called
pixels) that can be manipulated to present
information.
Using polarization of lights to display objects.
Use only ambient light to illuminate the
display.
Common wrist watch and pocket calculator to
an advanced VGA computer screen
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Different types of LCDs
Passive Matrix LCDs (AMLCD) and
Active Matrix LCDs (AMLCD)
Passive Twisted Nematic Displays (TNLCD)
Super Twisted nematic LCD (STNLCD)
Thin Film Transistor LCD (TFT LCD)
Reflective LCD
Rear Projection LCD
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3. Operating Principle
The parallel arrangement of liquid crystal molecules
along grooves
When coming into contact with grooved surface in a
fixed direction, liquid crystal molecules line up parallel
along the grooves.
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3. Operating Principle
Molecules movement
Offline (no voltage is applied)
Along the upper plate : Point
in direction 'a'
Along the lower plate : Point
in direction 'b
Forcing the liquid crystals into
a twisted structural
arrangement. (Resultant
force)
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3. Operating Principle
Light movement
Offline (no voltage is applied)
Light travels through the
spacing of the molecular
arrangement.
The light also "twists" as it
passes through the twisted
liquid crystals.
Light bends 90 degrees as it
follows the twist of the
molecules.
Polarized light pass through
the analyzer (lower polarizer).
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3. Operating Principle
Molecules movement
Online (voltage is applied)
Liquid crystal molecules
straighten out of their helix
pattern
Molecules rearrange
themselves vertically (Along
with the electric field)
No twisting thoughout the
movement
Forcing the liquid crystals into
a straight structural
arrangement. (Electric force)
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3. Operating Principle
Light movement
Online (voltage is applied)
Twisted light passes straight
through.
Light passes straight through
along the arrangement of
molecules.
Polarized light cannot pass
through the lower analyzer
(lower polarizer).
Screen darkens.
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3. Operating Principle
Offline Online
Sequences of offline and
online mode
Offline
1. Surrounding light is
polarized on the upper
plate.
2. Light moves along with
liquid crystals and twisted
at right angle.
3. Molecules and lights are
parallel to the lower
analyzer.
4. Light passes through the
plate.
5. Screen appear transparent.
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3. Operating Principle
Sequences of offline and
online mode
Online
1. Surrounding light is
polarized on the upper
plate.
2. Light moves along with
liquid crystals which moves
straight along the electric
field.
3. Molecules and lights are
perpendicular to the lower
analyzer.
4. Light cannot pass through
the plate.
5. Screen appear dark.
Offline Online
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3. Operating Principle
Polarization of light
When unpolarized light passes through a polarizing filter, only
one plane of polarization is transmitted. Two polarizing
filters used together transmit light differently depending on
their relative orientation.
Online Offline
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3. Operating Principle
Construction of
Liquid Crystal Display
Two bounding plates (usually glass
slides), each with a transparent
conductive coating (such as
indium tin oxide) that acts as an
electrode;
A polymer alignment layer :
undergoes a rubbing process as
grooves.
Spacers to control the cell gap
precisely;
Two crossed polarizers (the
polarizer and the analyzer);
Polarizers are usually perpendicular
to each other.
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3. Operating Principle
Properties of LCD Display
Small footprint (approx 1/6 of CRT)
Light weight (typ. 1/5 of CRT)
power consumption (typ. 1/4 of CRT)
Completely flat screen - no geometrical
errors
Crisp pictures - digital and uniform colors
No electromagnetic emission
Fully digital signal processing possible
Large screens (>20 inch) on desktops
High price (presently 3x CRT)
Poor viewing angle (typ. 50 degrees)
Low contrast and luminance (typ. 1:100)
Low luminance (typ. 200 cd/m2)

Maximum luminosity : 50%
of CRT as 50% of light is
blocked by the upper
polarizer.
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3. Operating Principle
Advantage of LCD over CRT
Smaller sizeAMLCDs occupy approximately 60
percent less space than CRT displaysan
important feature when office space is limited.
Lower power consumptionAMLCDs typically
consume about half the power and emit much
less heat than CRT displays.
Lighter weightAMLCDs weigh approximately
70 percent less than CRT displays of comparable
size.
No electromagnetic fieldsAMLCDs do not
emit electromagnetic fields and are not
susceptible to them. Thus, they are suitable for
use in areas where CRTs cannot be used.
Longer lifeAMLCDs have a longer useful life
than CRTs; however, they may require
replacement of the backlight.
Maximum luminosity : 50%
as 50% of light is blocked by
the upper polarizer.
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4. Display Addressing
Addressing is the process by which pixels are turned on and off
in order to create an image.
There are two main types of addressing, direct and
multiplexing.
Direct addressing is convenient for displays where there are
only a few elements that have to be activated. With direct
addressing, each pixel in the display has its own drive
circuit. A microprocessor must individually apply a voltage to
each element. A common application of direct addressing is the
traditional seven segment liquid crystal display, found in
wristwatches and similar devices.
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4. Display Addressing
In multiplex addressing, a larger number of pixels are
involved. When the elements are in a regular order, they can
be addressed by their row and column instead of each
element being driven separately. This reduces the complexity
of the circuitry because each pixel no longer needs its own
driver circuit.
If you have a 10x10 matrix of pixels, with direct addressing, you
need 100 individual drivers. However, if you use multiplex
addressing, you only need 20 drivers, one for each row and
one for each column.
This is a tremendous advantage, especially as displays
become larger and larger.
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4. Display Addressing
Optical Response
twisted nematic displays can switch between light and dark states,
or somewhere in between (grayscale).
Electro-distortional curve is shown as follows :






the electro-distortional response determines the transmission of
light through the cell.
Different light intensity of an image projected on the screen is
determined by different voltage supply. Thus the level of blocking
of light may vary.
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5. Applications
A) Thin Film Transistor (TFT)
Constructed on a glass surface using a photolithographic
process.
The source and gate are the control electrodes. The drain
electrode connects to the liquid crystal pixel. The thin layer
of amorphous silicon is the semiconducting material that
allows the TFT to function. The capacitor is attached to the
pixel electrode, but is not an integral part of the TFT.
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5. Applications
B) Alpha-numeric display
Digital letters can be displayed by blocking the lights in
different plates we place.
For applications such as digital watches and calculators,
a mirror is used under the bottom polarizer. With no
voltage applied, ambient light passes through the cell,
reflects off the mirror, reverses its path, and re-emerges
from the top of the cell, giving it a silvery appearance.
When the electric field is on, the aligned LC molecules do
not affect the polarization of the light. The analyzer
prevents the incident light from reaching the mirror
and no light is reflected, causing the cell to be dark.
When the electrodes are shaped in the form of
segments of numbers and letters they can be turned on
and off to form an alpha-numeric display.
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5. Applications
C) Back lighting systems
Alpha-numeric displays are not very bright because the
light must pass through multiple polarizers which
severely cut down on the intensity of the light, in
addition to the various layers of the display which are only
semi-transparent. Therefore a more intense source is
employed in the form of a back lighting system.
For brighter displays
Light bulbs mounted behind
At the edges of the display replace the reflected ambient
light.
Disadvantage : very power intensive. Back lighting
systems are used in more complex displays such as laptop
computer screens, monitors, LCD projectors, pda,
digital devices such as digital camera and DV.