Introduction to Psychology

Objectives
Discuss processes that provide meaningful structure to your
experiences.
How you perceive the world, learn, remember.
We will attempt to understand social influences on our
behavior and how we influence the world around us.
Psychology can be defined as the scientific study of
behavior of individuals and their mental processes.





the science of human and animal behavior; it includes the
application of this science to human problems.


The Scope of Psychology

Psychology as a science:
It is systematized knowledge that is gathered
by carefully observing and measuring events.
Conduct experiments (repeated) and collect
data in quantitative measurements.

Behavior- means by which individual adjusts
with the environment, largely observable.
Individual
Most often the subject of analysis, however
research done on rats and chimpanzees.
Research in natural habitat or labs.

Mental Processes
Internal events like thinking, planning,
reasoning.
Goals of Psychology
Describing - accurate observations about
behavior, level of analysis, attempting to
maintain objectivity.
Explaining- attempt to see regular patterns in
behavior and mental processes. Behavior is
influenced by multiple causes, both I nternal and
external. Observe wide variety of behavior and
synthesize.
Goals
Prediction- statements about the likelihood that
a certain behavior will occur. Have to be worded
appropriately to make it scientific predictions,
specify conditions under which behavior
changes.
Controlling - causal predictions help identify
conditions for controlling behavior hence
psychologists help people improve their quality
of life.
Historical Origins of Psychology
Ancient Greeks-
What is consciousness? Are people inherently
rational? How the mind works? The nature of free
will

Nature-Nurture Debate-
Whether human capabilities are inborn or acquired
through experience?



Beginning of Scientific psychology
In late 19
th
Century, William Wundt
in 1879 set up the first laboratory in
Liepzig and used Introspection method.

Introspection refers to observing and
recording the nature of ones own perception, thoughts
and feelings.

Reactions to Introspection: Birth of early school of
Psychology
Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviorism, Gestalt Psychology and
Psychoanalysis



Structuralism and Functionalism
Structuralism

Leading proponent- E. B. Titchner

Analysis of mental structures- units that make up the mind
units of sensation, image and emotion
Purely analytical in nature

William James- Analyzing the elements of consciousness was less
important than understanding its fluid, personal nature.



Functionalism

John Dewey, Harvey Carr at the University of
Chicago
What mind and behaviour do
How mind works to enable an organism to adapt
to and function in its environment

Behaviorism
By 1920, Structuralism and Functionalism were replaced by
Behaviorism, Gestalt Psychology & Psychoanalysis.

J.B Watson-Founder replaced the mind and restricted to the study
of behaviour
Watsons argument- All behavior is a result of conditioning and the
environment shapes behavior by reinforcing specific habits.
Denied the existence of inborn or innate behavioural tendencies.
Held that no specific differences between human and animal
behaviour
Behaviorists discussed psychological phenomenon in terms of
stimulus and responses, giving rise to the term stimulus-response
(S-R) psychology.
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt- German word meaning form or configuration

Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler- Gestalt
Psychologists primary interest was perception they
believed that perceptual experiences depend on the
patterns formed by stimulus and on the organization of
experience.
Whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and
organizations within this pattern.

The whole is different from the sum of its parts
because of the relationships between the parts.

Psychoanalysis
A theory of personality and method of psychotherapy
originated by Sigmund Freud.

Concept of unconsciousness, thoughts, attitudes,
impulses etc that we are unaware of.

Repressed Unconscious wishes and desires expressed in
Dreams, slips of tongue & physical mannerism.

Method of Free Association

Perspectives within Psychology


Cognitive Perspective
Subjectivist Perspective
Psychoanalytical Perspective
Biological Perspective
Behavioral Perspective
Biological Perspective:

Seeks to specify neurological processes that underlie behavior and
mental processes.

Behavioral Perspective:

Focus on observable stimuli and regards nearly all behavior as a
result of conditioning & responses.

Cognitive Perspective:

Use the analogy between mind and computer, not based on
introspection but it assumes that
Only by studying mental processes can we fully understand what
organism do.
Study mental processes in an objective fashion by focusing on
objective behavior.
Psychoanalytic Perspective:
Behavior stems from unconscious processes, meanings, beliefs, fears &
desires that a person is unaware of, but that nonetheless influences
behavior.

The Developmental Perspective:
Concerned with characteristic changes in people as they grow.

The Humanistic Perspective:
Emphasizes ones own sense of self.

Subjectivist Perspective:
Each individual has their own definition of the situation, which is expected to
vary according to their culture, personal history & current motivational
states.


Relationship between Biological and Psychological
Perspective:
Biological- Reductionism, involve reducing psychological notions to
biological ones, Which is not always accepted.





Concept Review Table
Biological Perspective
An orientation toward understanding the
neurobiological processes that underlie behavior and
mental processes.
Behavioral Perspective
An orientation toward understanding observable
behavior in terms of conditioning and reinforcement.
Cognitive Perspective
An orientation toward understanding mental
processes such as perceiving, remembering,
reasoning etc and their relationship to behavior.
Psychoanalytic
Perspective
An orientation toward understanding behavior in
terms of unconscious motives stemming from sexual
and aggressive impulses.
Subjectivist Perspective
An orientation toward understanding behavior and
mental processes in terms of the subjective realities
people actively construct.
Major Subfields of Psychology
Biological Psychology- relationship between biological process and
behavior

Experimental Psychology- conduct research from a behaviorist or
cognitive perspective and use experimental methods to study how
people react to sensory stimuli and perceive the world.

Developmental Psychology- Human development factors that shape
behavior from birth to old age.

Socio & Personality- How people perceive & interpret their social
world

Personality Psychology- study the thoughts, emotions & behaviors
that define an individualistic personal style of interacting with the
world.



Clinical & Counseling Psychology- Apply psychological principles
to the diagnosis & treatment of emotional & behavioral problems.

Counseling- Often deal with less serious problems.

School Psychology- Work with children to evaluate learning &
Emotional problems.

Educational Psychology- Specialization in learning and teaching.

Organizational and Engineering Psychology- Selecting people
who are most suitable for a particular jobs.

How Psychological research is done?
Generating Hypothesis

Experiments
Variable Independent Variable
Dependent Variable

Experimental and Control Group
Random Assignments- each participants have an equal
probability of being placed in any group.
Measurement

Correlation-Tests, Correlation

Observation- Direct Observation
Survey Method
Case Histories