Magnetic Circuit

Chapter 5
BEX 17003
Electrical and Electronic Technology
INTRODUCTION
New concepts are introduced:
- magnetism
- electromagnetism
The operation of many types of devices such as the
relay, the solenoid, and the speaker is based partially on
magnetic or electromagnetic principles.
Two types of magnets :
# permanent magnet maintains a constant
magnetic field between its two poles with no
external excitation.
# electromagnet produces a magnetic field only when
there is current through it. The electromagnet is
basically a coil of wire wound around a magnetic core
material.
CONTENT
5.1 Magnetic field
5.2 Electromagnetism
5.3 Electromagnetic devices
5.4 Magnetic hysteresis
5.5 Electromagnetic induction
5.1 MAGNETIC FIELD
A permanent magnet, such as the bar magnet shown in
Figure 5.1, has a field surrounding it that consists of lines of
force, or flux lines
Magnetic flux lines that are close indicates the field is strong
and when farther apart indicates the field is weak.
Flux lines leave the north-seeking end of a magnet and enter
the south-seeking end.
Figure 5.1
5.1 Magnetic field (cont.)

Attraction and Repulsion of Magnetic Poles
When unlike poles of two permanent magnets are placed
close together, an attractive force is produced by the
magnetic fields, as indicated in Figure 5.2(a).
When two like poles are brought close together, they repel
each other, as shown in Figure 5.2(b).
Figure 5.2
(a) (b)
5.1 Magnetic field (cont.)
Magnetic Flux ()
The group of force lines going from the north pole to the
south pole of a magnet is called the magnetic flux,
symbolized by | (phi).
The more lines of force, the greater flux and the stronger
the magnetic field.
The unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb). One weber
equals 10
8
lines.


5.1 Magnetic field (cont..)
Magnetic Flux Density (B)
Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux per unit
area perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Its symbol is B, and its unit is tesla (T). One tesla
equals one weber per square meter (Wb/m
2
). The
following formula expresses the flux density:



A
B =
|
Where is the flux and A is the cross-sectional area in square meters (m
2
)
of the magnetic field.
Example 5.1
Find the flux density in a magnetic field in which
the flux in 0.1 m
2
is 800 Wb.

Solution
T
m
Wb
A
B
|
8000
1 . 0
800
2
= = =
Example 5.2
1. Calculate if B = 4700 T and
A = 0.05 m
2

2. If the flux density in a certain magnetic
material is 2.3 T and the area of the
material is 245 x 10
-6
m
2
, what is the flux
through the material?


Solution 5.2
Wb BA
A
B
|
|
235 ) 05 . 0 )( 4700 (
;
= = =
=
1.
Wb m x T BA
is material the through flux The
| 564 ) 10 245 )( 3 . 2 (
2 6
= = =

2.
5.2 ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electromagnetism is the production of a magnetic field by
current in a conductor.
Current produces a magnetic field, called an electromagnetic
field, as illustrated in Figure 5.3.
If the direction of current is left to right, the lines are in a
clockwise direction (Fig. 5.3a) and if current is right to left,
the lines are in a counterclockwise direction (Fig. 5.3b) .
Figure 5.3
(a)
(b)
5.2 Electromagnetism (cont.)
To determine the direction of current flowing in a
conductor and the magnetic field, the right hand rule is
applied.
Right-hand rule:
5.2 Electromagnetism (cont.)
Unlike the bar magnet, the magnetic field
around a wire does not have a north or
south pole.
Although the magnetic field cannot be
seen, it is capable of producing visible
effect.
For example, iron filings on the surface of
the paper arrange themselves along
magnetic lines in concentric rings, as
illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4
5.2 Electromagnetism (cont.)
Electromagnetic properties:
Permeability
Reluctance
Magnetomotive force (mmf)
Permeability
Permeability measures how easy magnetic filed is created. The
higher the permeability, easier a magnetic field can be
established and the symbol of permeability is .
Relative permeability (
r
) of a material is the ratio of its absolute
permeability () to relative permeability of a vacuum (
o
). The
ratio is given as:
o
r

5.2 Electromagnetism (cont.)

Reluctance
The opposition to the establishment of a magnetic field in a
called reluctance, its unit in At/Wb, and can be expressed by
the following equation:






Ampere-turn/weber
The units for magnetic
reluctance are inverse
Henries, H
1
.
Magnetomotive force
In a DC field, the reluctance is the ratio of the "magnetomotive force
(MMF) in a magnetic circuit to the magnetic flux in this circuit. In a pulsating
DC or AC field, the reluctance is the ratio of the amplitude of the
"magnetomotive force (MMF) in a magnetic circuit to the amplitude of
the magnetic flux in this circuit.. (see phasors).
The force that produces the magnetic field is called the magnetomotive
force (mmf). The unit of mmf, the ampere-turn (At), and given by this
formula:

where
("R") is the reluctance in ampere-turns per weber (a unit that is equivalent to
turns per henry). "Turns" refers to the winding number of an electrical
conductor comprising an inductor.
("F") is the magnetomotive force (MMF) in ampere-turns
("Phi") is the magnetic flux in webers.

5.2 Electromagnetism (cont.)
Figure 5.5 shows several wires carrying current around a
magnetic material sets up flux lines through the magnetic
path.
The amount of flux created can be calculated using:
)
`

9
=
m
F
|
Ohms Law for magnetic circuits
Figure 5.5
Example 1:
Calculate the reluctance and permeance
of a ferromagnetic circuit of mean length
20 cm, having area 10cm
2
and a relative
permeability 100. if the circuit is uniformly
wound with 1000 turns of wire carrying
0.1A, determine the magnetic flux in the
core.
Example 2:
A mild steel ring having a cross-sectional area of
500mm
2
and a mean circumference of 400 mm has a
coil of 200 turns wound uniformly around it. Calculate
(i) the reluctance of the ring and (ii) the current of
required to produce a flux of 800 Wb in the ring. Take
relative permeability of mild steel as 400 at the given flux
density.

Answer: (i) Reluctance=1.6x10
6
AT/wb.
(ii) I=6.4A
5.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES
Solenoid
The solenoid is a type of electromagnetic device that has a
movable iron core called plunger. It is widely used in controlling
valves and vehicle door locks.
The basic structure of a solenoid is shown in Figure 5.6. It
consists of a cylindrical coil of wire wound around a
nonmagnetic hollow form. A stationary iron core is fixed in
position at the end of the shaft and plunger is attached to the
stationary core with a spring.
Figure 5.6
5.3 Electromagnetic devices (cont.)
Operation of solenoid:
At rest state (un-energised), the plunger is extended.
When energised, as in Fig. 5.7(a), current in coil sets up
electromagnetic field and magnetised both cores.
Plunger is now being attracted to the stationary core and
compresses spring. It remains as long as current flows in coil.
When current is cut off, plunger is pushed back to its original
position as in Fig. 5.7(b).
Figure 5.7
(a) (b)
5.3 Electromagnetic devices (cont.)
Armature relay
The relay applies the electromagnetic action to open/close electrical
contacts. Figure 5.8a shows the symbol of an armature relay.
When there is no coil current, the armature is held at upper contact by
spring connecting terminal 1 and 2, as shown in 5.8b.
When energized with coil current, the armature is pulled down by the
attractive force of electromagnetic and makes connection between
terminal 1 and 3, as shown in Figure 5.8c.
Figure 5.8
5.3 Electromagnetic devices (cont.)
Speaker
Permanent-magnet speakers operation is based on the
principle of electromagnetism.
A typical speaker structure (Fig.5.9a) has cone consists of a
paper-like diaphragm attached to cylinder with a coil around it,
forming an electromagnet.
When there is current in one direction (Fig. 5.9b), interaction of
permanent magnetic with electromagnetic causes cylinder
moves to the right. Coil current in another direction causes
cylinder moves to the left (Fig. 5.9c).
Figure 5.9
5.3 Electromagnetic devices (cont.)
Operation of speaker:
As shown in Figure 5.10, when an audio signal (voice or music) is
applied to the coil, the current varies in both direction and amount.
In response, the diaphragm will vibrate in and out by varying
amounts and rates corresponding to the audio signal.
Vibration in the diaphragm causes the air that is in contact with it to
vibrate in the same manner. These air vibrations move through the
air as sound waves.
Figure 5.10
5.4 MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
Magnetizing force
The magnetizing force in a material is
defined as the ratio of magnetomotive
force (F
m
) per unit length (l), and its
unit is ampere-turns per meter (At/m).




Since | , as F
m
increases, the

flux, |, and H increases. Recall that
flux density, B = | /A, so B is also
proportional to H.
The parameters that influence both B
and H are illustrated in Figure 5.11.
l
NI
= =
l
F
H
m
Figure 5.11
9
=
m
F
5.4 Magnetic hysteresis (cont.)
Hysteresis curve
The curve showing how these two quantities (B and H) are
related is called the B-H curve or the hysteresis curve as
shown in Figure 5.12.
Coercive force, H
C
, is the magnetizing force required to make
the flux density zero.
Figure 5.12
5.4 Magnetic hysteresis (cont.)
Retentivity
The ability of a material to maintain a magnetized state
without the presence of a magnetizing force.
Retentivity of material is the maximum flux that can be retained
after the material has been magnetized to saturation and is
indicated by the ratio of B
R
/ B
sat
.
Depending on the application, retentivity in a magnetic material
can be an advantage or disadvantage.
For example, in permanent magnets and magnetic tape, high
retentivity is required while in tape recorder read/write heads,
low retentivity is necessary.
In ac motors, retentivity is undesirable because the residual
magnetic field must be overcome each time the current
reverses, thus wasting energy.
5.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Induced voltage and induced current
When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, a
voltage is produced across the conductor. This principle is
known as electromagnetic induction and the resulting voltage
is called induced voltage (v
ind
).
The amount of the induced voltage depends on the rate of
movement between wire and magnetic field. The faster the
relative speed, the higher the induced voltage.
The polarity of induced voltage is shown in Figure 5.13.

Figure 5.13
5.5 Electromagnetic induction (cont.)
Induced current
If the conductor is given a load and closed path, current will
flow in the load. Current flows in the load is known as induced
current, i
ind
.
The polarity of induced voltage across the load determines the
direction of current in the load as in Figure 5.14.
The process of generating current in the load by moving a
conductor across a magnetic field is applied in electrical
generator. Right-hand rule can be used to relate between
motion of conductor, magnetic field and the induced current.
Figure 5.14
5.5 Electromagnetic induction (cont.)
Force on conductor in magnetic field
Figure 5.15(a) shows current outward through a wire in a
magnetic field that creates electromagnet field lines.
The permanent magnet lines above the wire is deflected down
wire, because they are in opposite direction to the
electromagnetic lines.
Thus, the flux density above wire is reduced and magnetic field
is weak whereas flux density below wire increases and
magnetic field is strong. As a result, an upward force push the
wire upward to the weaker magnetic field.
Figure 5.15(b) shows the current inward, results in force
pushing wire downward direction.
Figure 5.15
5.5 Electromagnetic induction (cont.)
The magnitude of force is determined by flux density (B), current
in wire (I), the length of wire exposed to magnetic field (l) and the
angle in which wire cuts the magnetic field (u ).
This relationship is called Bio-Savarts Law, which can be
expressed as:

When the conductor is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the
equation becomes


Concept of force around a conductor is used in motor application.
Left-hand rule is normally applied to relate between force on
conductor, magnetic field and current flow.
sin BIl F =
BIl F =
5.5 Electromagnetic induction (cont.)
Faradays Law
Before came up with Faradays Law, Michael Faraday made
two observations:
Amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional
to the rate of change of magnetic field of the coil (d|/dt).
Amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional
to the number of turns of wire in coil (N).
Faradays Law states that:
The voltage induced across a coil of wire equals the
number of in the coil multiply with rate of change of
magnetic flux.
|
.
|

\
|
=
dt
N v
ind
d|
5.5 Electromagnetic induction (cont.)
Lenzs Law
Faradays Law states the magnitude of induced voltage when
conductor is moving in a magnetic field.
Lenzs Law defines the polarity of the induced voltage.
Lenzs Law states that:
When the current through a coil changes, an induced
voltage is created as a result of the changing
electromagnetic field and the polarity of the induced voltage
is such that is always opposes the change in current.
The End of chapter