On Monday, August 6, 1945, at 8:15 AM, the nuclear bomb

"Little Boy" was dropped on Hiroshima by an American B-29

bomber, the Enola Gay,

directly killing an estimated 80,000
people. By the end of the year, injury and radiation brought
total casualties to 90,000140,000
]
. Approximately 69% of
the city's buildings were completely destroyed, and about 7%
severely damaged.
On August 9, 1945, Nagasaki was the target of the world's second
atomic bomb attack (and second detonation of a plutonium bomb; the
first was tested in central New Mexico, USA) at 11:02 a.m., when the
north of the city was destroyed and an estimated 40,000 people were
killed by the bomb codenamed "Fat Man." According to statistics
found within Nagasaki Peace Park, the death toll from the atomic
bombing totaled 73,884, as well as another 74,909 injured, and
another several hundred thousand diseased and dying due to fallout
and other illness caused by radiation.
[7]

"Little Boy" was the codename of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945
by the Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay, piloted by Colonel Paul Tibbets of the 393d
Bombardment Squadron, Heavy, of the United States Army Air Forces.
[2]
It was the first atomic
bomb to be used as a weapon.
"Fat Man" is the codename for the atomic bomb that was detonated over Nagasaki, Japan, by
the United States on August 9, 1945, at 11:02 AM (JSP). It was the second of the only two
nuclear weapons to be used in warfare to date"Fat Man" was detonated at an altitude of about
1,800 feet (550 m) over the Japanese city of Nagasaki and was dropped from a B-29 bomber
Bockscar, piloted by Major Charles Sweeney of the 393d Bombardment Squadron, Heavy.
Distribution Of Nuclear Reactors
DEPARTEMENT GEOSCIENCE
Isotope geochemistry is an aspect of geology
based upon study of the relative and absolute
concentrations of the elements and their
isotopes in the Earth.
1. The nucleus which contains:
2. Orbiting electrons.
protons
neutrons
The Atom
The atom consists of two parts:

.
The Atom
All matter is made up of elements (e.g.
carbon, hydrogen, etc.).
Atom of different elements contain different
numbers of protons.
The mass of an atom is almost entirely due to
the number of protons and neutrons



X
A
Z
A = number of protons + number of neutrons
Z = number of protons
A Z = number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = Mass Number Atomic Number
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms that contain the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons. The
number of protons (the atomic number) is the same
for each isotope
U
235
92
U
238
92
There are many types of uranium:
Isotopes of any particular element contain the same
number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.
A 235
Z 92
Number of protons 92
Number of Neutrons 143
A 238
Z 92
Number of protons 92
Number of neutrons 146
Most of the isotopes which occur naturally are
stable.
A few naturally occurring isotopes and all of
the man-made isotopes are unstable.
Unstable isotopes can become stable by
releasing different types of particles.
This process is called radioactive decay and
the elements which undergo this process are
called radioisotopes/radionuclides.






Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay results in the emission of
either:
an alpha particle (a)
a beta particle (b)
or a gamma ray(g).

.
Alpha Decay
An alpha particle is an emission of particle
identical to that of a helium nucleus


It contains two protons and two neutrons.

X
A
Z
Y
A - 4
Z - 2
+
He
4
2
unstable atom
more stable atom
alpha particle
Alpha Decay
Ra
226
88
Rn
222
86
He
4
2
Alpha Decay
X
A
Z
Y
A - 4
Z - 2
+
He
4
2
Ra
226
88
Rn
222
86
+
He
4
2
Alpha Decay
Rn
222
86
He
4
2
+
Po
218
84
He
4
2
Rn
222
86
+
Y
A
Z
He
4
2
Alpha Decay
He
4
2
U
234
92
+
Th
230
90
He
4
2
X
A
Z
+
Th
230
90
He
4
2
Alpha Decay
Th
230
90
+
Y
A
Z
He
4
2
He
4
2
+
Ra
226
88
He
4
2
Th
230
90
Alpha Decay
X
A
Z
+
Pb
214
82
He
4
2
He
4
2
+
Pb
214
82
He
4
2
Po
218
84
Alpha Decay
Beta Decay
A beta particle is a fast moving electron which is
emitted from the nucleus of an atom undergoing
radioactive decay.




Beta decay occurs when a neutron changes into a
proton and an electron.





Beta Decay
As a result of beta decay, the nucleus has one
less neutron, but one extra proton.




The atomic number, Z, increases by 1 and the
mass number, A, stays the same.


Po
218
84
b
0
-1
At
218
85
Beta Decay
X
A
Z
Y
A
Z + 1
+
b
0
-1
Po
218
84
Rn
218
85
+
b
0
-1
Th
234
90
Y
A
Z
+
b
0
-1
Beta Decay
Th
234
90
Pa
234
91
+
b
0
-1
X
A
Z
Pb
210
82
+
b
0
-1
Beta Decay
Tl
210
81
Pb
210
82
+
b
0
-1
Bi
210
83
Y
A
Z
+
b
0
-1
Bi
210
83
Po
210
84
+
b
0
-1
Beta Decay
X
A
Z
Bi
214
83
+
b
0
-1
Pb
214
82
Bi
214
83
+
b
0
-1
Beta Decay
Gamma Decay
Gamma rays are not charged particles like a and b
particles.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation with
high frequency.
When atoms decay by emitting a or b particles to
form a new atom, the nuclei of the new atom
formed may still have too much energy to be
completely stable.
This excess energy is emitted as gamma rays
(gamma ray photons have energies of ~ 1 x 10
-12

J).




Exponential Decay
Decay of
226
Ra
Half-Life
There are a large range of half-lives seen in
nature
Half-lives are unaffected by the nucleis
surroundings and only depend on what goes
on inside the nucleus
238
U has a half-life of 4.5 billion years
Half-Life
To summarize, one-half of the sample will
decay in one half-fife
One-half of that one-half will decay in the next
half life
One-half of that one-fourth will decay in the
next half life
Half-Life
Transmutations
The changing of one element to another is
called transmutation
This occurs whenever there is an alpha decay
or a beta decay
Remember, that for a gamma decay, the
nucleus just changes internal energy levels,
but doesnt change the identity of nucleons
Transmutations
Artificial Transmutation
First example was Rutherford bombarding
nitrogen with alpha particles
4
He +
14
N ->
17
O +
1
H
He viewed the reaction with a cloud chamber
The particles left a vapor trail in the mist
Cloud Chamber
When you pull the piston down suddenly,
you reduce the air pressure in the
chamber. This means vapor is now
super-saturated. A charged particle acts
as a nucleation seed to condense the
liquid from the vapor. This is the same
principle as cloud-seeding to make it
rain.
Isotopic Dating
Cosmic rays (mostly high energy protons)
strike upper atmosphere and cause
transmutations that result in many protons
and neutrons being sprayed out
Protons tend to grab electrons from other
atoms and become simple hydrogen
Neutrons keep going and smash into other
atoms
Isotopic Dating
When a neutron strikes nitrogen
1
n +
14
N ->
14
C +
1
H
In the atmosphere,
14
C is about 1 part in 10
11

Reacts with plants just like
12
C
14
C decays via beta emission
14
C ->
14
N + beta half life of 5730 years
Carbon Dating
When a plant dies, it stops the intake of
carbon
Since the
14
C decays, after 5730 years, half of
it will be gone
We can just weigh a piece of dead wood,
calculate how much
14
C it originally had and
measure to how much it has now to get the
age
Uranium Dating
We know the half -life of
238
U and
235
U
They have series that end in
206
Pb and
207
Pb
Compare how much U vs. special lead and
calculate the age of the rock!!
Carbon dating only good for about 50,000
years
Uranium rock dating good for millions of years
Nuclear Fission
1
n +
235
U ->
91
Kr +
142
Ba + 3
1
n

Chain Reaction
Chain Reaction
The key to keeping the reaction going is that
at least one of the neutrons given off, must
cause another fission
Controlled reaction in a nuclear reactor
If two or three cause fissions, you can get a
bomb!
Idea of critical mass
Critical Mass
Atom Bomb
Nuclear Reactor
Mass-Energy Relationship
So, where does the mass go?
It is the binding energy that is holding the
nucleus together
Interesting to look at the mass per nucleon as
we change the atomic number (change which
element we look at)
Fusion Reactions
BERITA CHERNOBYL
Pada 26 April 1986, penduduk Kiev dikejutkan oleh sebuah ledakan besar. Ledakan ini memuntahkan potongan inti
reaktor sampai 1500 meter ke langit dan menebarkan awan beracun ke 70 persen daratan eropa. Radioaktivitas
total ledakan Chernobyl, menurut WHO, ditaksir 200 kali radiasi bom atom Hiroshima dan Nagasaki.

Kelompok pecinta lingkungan Greenpeace bahkan menaksir, 160 ribu kilometer persegi tanah terkontaminasi
bahan radioaktif. Sementara Mantan Sekretaris Jenderal PBB Boutros Boutros Ghali mengatakan, "Kecelakaan
Chernobyl tidak dapat dianggap sebagai masalah beberapa abad saja, tapi juga masalah kekinian karena banyak
program sosial, ekonomi, dan lingkungan yang harus didefinisikan kembali."

Yang pasti, fakta menunjukkan lima juta orang di sekitar Chernobyl terkena radiasi. Sekitar 650 ribu diantaranya
adalah para buruh yang bertugas membersihkan muntahan ledakan Chernobyl. Dan sekitar 200 ribu dari 650
buruh tersebut, merupakan kelompok kunci beresiko tinggi terpapar radiasi. Mereka berada dalam zona
penyingkiran, atau sekitar 30 kilometer dari pusat ledakan Chernobyl.

Sepuluh tahun kemudian tercatat, 60 ribu buruh pembersih yang kebanyakan berusia 30 tahunan, meninggal
dunia. Sementara 30 persen laki-laki pekerja pembersih yang masih hidup menderita impotensi. Yang menjadi
masalah, sebagian besar buruh ini ditolak dalam kehidupan sosialnya. Penyebabnya, mereka dicurigai akan
menularkan radiasi dari reaktor PLTN kepada orang-orang di sekitarnya. Hal inilah yang memicu mereka meninggal
akibat kecanduan alkohol, mati dalam kemiskinan, serta bunuh diri.

Dokter spesialis penyakit -yang berkaitan dengan tragedi Chernobyl- Natalya Preobrashenskaya mengatakan,
selain pekerja pembersih muntahan radioaktif, jutaan anak-anak yang tetap hidup pasca ledakan merupakan
kelompok berisiko tinggi terpapar radiasi. Preobrashenskaya bahkan menyatakan, jutaan anak-anak yang lahir di
masa mendatang juga akan terkena cemaran radiasi Chernobyl, sesuai prilaku radioaktif yang dipakai sebagai
bahan bakar PLTN, jutaan tahun!

Penyakit akibat Radiasi

Apa saja penyakit yang timbul setelah tragedi Chernobyl? Boutros Boutros Ghali menyebutkan, lebih dari 300 anak-anak terdiagnosis kanker
gondok, kesuburan pria wanita menurun drastis, dan angka kematian naik.

Secara lebih terperinci, 60 persen anak-anak Ukraina atau sejuta orang lebih menderita kanker gondok, sepuluh persen lainnya yang masih duduk di
bangku SD mengalami rusak mental, serta sebagian besar anak-anak Ukraina menderita penyakit tulang. Preobrashenskaya mengatakan, kekebalan
tubuh anak-anak Ukraina pun menurun drastis sehingga disebut pula AIDS-Chernobyl.

Penelitian Preobrashenskaya senada dengan penelitian WHO. Badan Kesehatan Dunia itu menyatakan, setelah peristiwa Chernobyl terjadi
peningkatan kasus kanker gondok anak, 100 kali dibanding prakecelakaan Chernobyl. Kenyataan lainnya, penduduk Kiev banyak yang terkena
kanker paru-paru dan jantung. Dan banyak dokter memperkirakan, dalam waktu mendatang, epidemi berbagai penyakit menular akan meningkat
di sekitar lokasi kejadian, dan di kalangan mereka yang terpapar radiasi nuklir.

Tragisnya, terapi kimia normal tidak efektif (mempan-red) pada penderita kanker akibat radiasi Chernobyl. Menurut Dr Andrei Butenko dari rumah
sakit nomor satu di Kiev, dipastikan kanker gondok ganas yang menimpa anak-anak Ukraina akibat kontaminasi isotop iodium-131, isotop iodium
yang radioaktif. Imbasnya, dengan terapi kimia di atas normal, kepala para pasien membotak dan wajah mereka bengkak-bengkak.

Horor yang kurang lebih sama dialami anak-anak Yunani. Anak-anak di negara tersebut berisiko terkena kanker dua hingga tiga kali akibat
Chernobyl. Bahkan, anak-anak Yunani yang terpapar radioaktif ketika masih dalam kandungan ibunya berisiko menderita leukimia 2,6 kali lipat
dibanding anak-anak lainnya. Hal ini karena adanya mutasi gen yang diberi nama 11q23.



Mutasi Gen

Mutasi gen merupakan imbas lain dari kejamnya radiasi Chernobyl. Mutasi gen 11q23 ini merupakan salah satu contoh nyata yang berhubungan
dengan leukimia pada bayi. "Temuan ini merupakan bukti langsung pertama, bahwa radiasi ternyata menimbulkan mutasi pada anak manusia," ulas
Sir Alec Jeffreys, ahli genetika dari Universitas Leicester.

Sir Alec melakukan penelitian pada 79 keluarga yang tinggal di Mogilev, Belarus, kawasan yang terkena radiasi tinggi, kurang lebih 300 kilometer
dari Chernobyl. Ia meneliti anak-anak di keluarga tersebut yang lahir antara Februari-September 1994. Sebagai perbandingan, ia juga meneliti 105
anak-anak yang tidak terkena radiasi dari Inggris.

Hasilnya, anak-anak Mogilev terbukti mengalami mutasi gen dua kali lebih tinggi dibandingkan anak-anak di Inggris. Mutasi tersebut jelas
diturunkan oleh orang tua mereka, dan secara permanen terkode pada gen anak-anak mereka. Artinya, mutasi tersebut juga akan diturunkan pada
generasi-generasi selanjutnya.

Menurut Sir Alec, mutasi pada keluarga di Mogilev berhubungan dengan tingkatan kontaminasi permukaan oleh caesium 137, sebuah isotop
radioaktif. Bahkan ahli genetika dari Akademi Sains Rusia Yuri Dubrova menyatakan, kelompoknya melihat lokasi genetik tertentu yang dikenal
dengan nama minisatellites yang mengalami laju mutasi 1000 kali lipat lebih tinggi dibandingkan gen lainnya.

Sementara itu, Robert Baker dari Universitas Teknologi Texas meneliti dua kelompok tikus, yaitu kelompok yang tinggal satu kilometer dari reaktor,
dan yang hidup 32 kilometer dari reaktor. Yang diteliti adalah mitokondria DNA (bagian sel yang diturunkan induk betina) pada anak tikus-tikus.

Hasilnya, walau tikus yang hidup dekat reaktor terlihat sehat dan subur, tapi mereka mengalami laju mutasi ratusan kali lebih tinggi dari kondisi
normal. "Artinya, lingkungan yang tercemar akibat ledakan Chernobyl memberikan dampak nyata perubahan gen pada mahluk hidup sekitarnya,"
ulas Robert Baker.

Nada miris terdengar dari mulut peneliti Universitas Texas Austin David Hillis. "Kita sekarang tahu, dampak mutasi akibat kecelakaan nuklir mungkin
lebih besar daripada yang diharapkan," komentar Hillis.

Vielen Dank