Metal Cutting Theory For Mechanical Engineers

9/26/2014
1
Dr M Varaprasada Rao
Simple common process of removal of un-wanted
portion of material from a starting work-part or
work-piece or raw- material, so the remaining
part has the desired geometry
Machining material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling etc.,
Abrasive processes material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
example. Electro Chemical Milling, EDM etc.,
9/26/2014 2 Dr M Varaprasada Rao
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with
negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Machining
Variety of work materials can be machined
Most frequently used to cut metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface
finish possible with machining operation.
Produces Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
More Time consuming Process
A machining operation generally takes more time
to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or
forming


Generally performed after other
manufacturing processes, such as casting,
forging, and bar drawing

Other processes create the general shape
of the starting work-part

Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create
Speed is the relative movement between tool
and w/p, which produces a cut

Feed is the relative movement between tool
and w/p, which spreads the cut
Most Important Machining Operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling

Other Machining Operations:
Shaping and Planning
Broaching
Sawing
Metal ahead of the cutting tool is compressed
and this results in the deformation or
elongation of the crystal structure resulting in a
shearing of the metal.
As the process continues, the metal above the
cutting edge is forced along the chip-tool
interference zone and is moved away form the
work.
Tool
Workpiece
Chip
Heat Generation Zones
(Dependent on sharpness
of tool)
(Dependent on )

(Dependent on |)

10%
30%
60%


Tool Terminology
Side relief
angle
Side cutting

edge angle

(SCEA)
Clearance or end
relief angle
Back
Rake

(BR),+
Side Rake
(SR), +
End Cutting

edge angle

(ECEA)
Nose
Radius
Turning
Cutting
edge
Facing
Cutting
edge
SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL TERMINOLOGY
Shank It is main body of tool. The shank used to grippesd in tool
holder.
Flank The surface or surface below the adjacent of the cutting edge is
called flank of the tool.
Face It is top surface of the tool along which the chips slides.
Base It is actually a bearing surface of the tool when it is held in tool
holder or clamped directly in a tool post.
Heel It is the intersection of the flank & base of the tool. It is curved
portion at the bottom of the tool.
Nose It is the point where side cutting edge & base cutting edge
intersect.
Cutting edge It is the edge on face of the tool which removes the
material from workpiece. The cutting edges are side cutting edge (major
cutting edge) & end cutting edge ( minor cutting edge)
Tool angles-Tool angles have great importance. The tool with proper
angle, reduce breaking of tool, cut metal more efficiently, generate less
heat.
Noise radius It provide long life & good surface finish sharp point on
nose is highly stressed, & leaves grooves in the path of cut.Longer nose
radius produce chatter.


MRR = vfd
Roughing(R)
f = 0. 4 1. 25mm / rev
d = 2. 5 20mm
Finishing(F)
f = 0.125 0. 4mm / rev
d = 0.75 2.0mm
v
R
<< v
F
Cutting Models
ORTHOGONAL GEOMETRY OBLIQUE GEOMETRY
Tool
workpiece
Tool
workpiece
Assumptions
(Orthogonal Cutting Model)

The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular
to the direction of motion, and it generates a plane surface
as the work moves past it.
The tool is perfectly sharp (no contact along the clearance
face).
The shearing surface is a plane extending upward from
the cutting edge.
The chip does not flow to either side
The depth of cut/chip thickness is constant uniform
relative velocity between work and tool
Continuous chip, no built-up-edge (BUE)

r =
t
o
t
c
=
l
s
sin|
l
s
cos(| o)
tan | =
r coso
1 rsin o
=
AC
BD
=
AD+ DC
BD
= tan(| o) + cot |
F
t
F
C
F
r
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
WORKPIECE
CUTTING TOOL
DIRECTION OF FEED
Velocity of
Tool relative to
workpiece V
Longitudinal
'Thrust' Force (27%)
Radial
Force (6%)
Tangential 'Cutting' Force (67%)
Turning Forces For Orthogonal
Model
End view section 'A'-'A'
Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic
Model we will ignore the radial component
F
t
'A'
'A'
c
F

F
L
F
C
F
r
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
WORKPIECE
CUTTING TOOL
DIRECTION OF FEED
Velocity of
Tool relative to
workpiece V
Longitudinal Force
Radial Force
Thrust Force
Tangential Force
'Cutting' Force
Facing Forces For Orthogonal Model
End view
Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic
Model we will ignore the Longitudinal
component
'Turning' Terminology
N is the speed in rpm
D is the diameter of the
workpiece
f is the feed (linear
distance/rev)
d is the depth of cut
V is the surface speed
= tDN

Standard Terms
Beware, for turning: In the generalized
orthogonal model depth of cut (to) is f (the feed),
and width of cut (w) is d (the depth of cut)
N
| D
d mm
feed
(mm/rev)
Tool
Workpiece
rpm
Orthogonal Cutting Model
(Simple 2D mechanistic model)
Mechanism: Chips produced by the shearing process along the shear plane
o
t
0
|
+
Rake

Angle
Chip
Workpiece
Clearance Angle
Shear Angle
t
c
depth of cut
Chip thickness
Tool
Velocity V
tool
tool
Cutting Ratio
(or chip thicknes ratio)
As Sin| =
t
o
AB
and Cos(|-o) =
t
c
AB
Chip thickness ratio (r) =
t
0
t
c
=
sin|
cos(|o)
|
t
c
t
o
(|o)
A
B
Chip
Workpiece

Experimental Determination of
Cutting Ratio
Shear angle | may be obtained
either from photo-micrographs
or assume volume continuity
(no chip density change):

Since t
0
w
0
L
0
= t
c
w
c
L
c
and w
0
=w
c
(exp. evidence)
Cutting ratio , r =
t
0
t
c
=
L
c
L
0
i.e. Measure length of chips (easier than thickness)
w
t
L
0
0
0
w c
L
c
c
t
FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools
have traditionally been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been largely
replaced by carbide or other inserts of various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).
Cutting processes remove material
from the surface of a workpiece by
producing chips.
Turning, in which the workpiece is
rotated and a cutting tool removes a
layer of material as the tool moves to the
left.
Cutting off: in which the cutting tool
moves radially inward and separates the
right piece from the bulk of the blank.
Slab milling: in which a rotating cutting
tool removes a layer of material from the
surface of the workpiece.
End milling: in which a rotating cutter
travels along a certain depth in the work-
piece and produces a cavity.
In the turning process, illustrated
the cutting tool is set at a certain
depth of cut (mm) and travels to
the left with a certain velocity as
the workpiece rotates. The feed, or
feed rate, is the distance the tool
travels horizontally per unit
revolution of the workpiece
(mm/rev). This movement of the
tool produces a chip, which moves
up the face of the tool.
Figure : Schematic illustration of a two-
dimensional cutting process, also called
orthogonal cutting: (a) Orthogonal cutting
with a well-defined shear plane, also
known as the Merchant Model. Note that
the tool shape, depth of cut, t
o
, and the
cutting speed, V, are all independent
variables, (b) Orthogonal cutting without a
well-defined shear plane.
Compare Figs.
Feed in turning is equivalent
to t
0
Depth of cut in turning is
equivalent to width of cut
(dimension perpendicular to
the page) in the idealized
model.
These relationships can be
visualized by rotating Fig.
20.3 CW by 90
o
.




Independent variables in the cutting process:
Tool material, coatings and tool condition.
Tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness.
Workpiece material, condition, and temperature.
Cutting parameters, such as speed, feed, and depth of cut.
Cutting fluids.
The characteristics of the machine tool, such as its stiffness and
damping.
Workholding and fixturing.
Dependent variables:
Type of chip produced.
Force and energy dissipated in the cutting process.
Temperature rise in the workpiece, the chip, and the tool.
Wear and failure of the tool.
Surface finish produced on the workpiece after machining.
Figure (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip
formation by shearing. (b) Velocity diagram showing angular
relationships among the three speeds in the cutting zone.
The tool has a rake
angle of , and a
relief (clearance)
angle.
The shearing
process in chip
formation is similar to
the motion of cards in
a deck sliding against
each other.
The ratio of t
o
/t
c
is known as the cutting ratio, r, expressed as:
Chip thickness is always greater than the depth of cut
Chip compression ratio: reciprocal of r. It is a measure of how
thick the chip has become compared to the depth of cut.
The cutting ratio is an important and useful parameter for
evaluating cutting conditions. Since the undeformed chip
thickness, t
o
, is a machine setting and is therefore known, the
cutting ratio can be calculated easily by measuring the chip
thickness with a micrometer.
The shear strain, , that the material undergoes can be express as:

Large shear strains are associated with low shear angles, or low or negative
rake angles.
Shear strains of 5 or higher in actual cutting operations.
Deformation in cutting generally takes place within a very narrow
deformation zone; that is, d = OC in Fig. is very small.
Therefore, the rate at which shearing takes place is high.
Shear angle influences force and power requirements, chip thickness, and
temperature.
Consequently, much attention has been focused on determining the
relationships between the shear angle and workpiece material properties
and cutting process variables.
Assuming that the shear angle adjusts itself to minimize the cutting force,
or that the shear plane is a plane of maximum shear stress.

is the friction angle and is related to the coefficient of friction, , at the tool
chip interface (rake face):

o From Eq above as the rake angle decreases
and / or the friction at the tool chip interface
increases, the shear angle decreases and the
chip becomes thicker,
o Thicker chips mean more energy dissipation
because the shear strain is higher
o Because work done during cutting is converted
into heat, temperature rise is also higher.
Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means
lower shear force
Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all of which mean
easier machining
Figure - Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller with a corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that
the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear angle according to the
Merchant equation 9/26/2014 57 Dr M Varaprasada Rao
From Fig., since chip thickness is greater than the depth of cut, the velocity
of the chip, V
c
, has to be lower than the cutting speed, V.
Conservation of mass:

V
s
is the velocity at which shearing
takes place in the shear plane.
From the velocity diagram we obtain the
1. Continuous
2. Built-up Edge
3. Serrated or Segmented
4. Discontinuous
A chip has two surfaces:
1. One that is in contact with the tool face (rake face). This
surface is shiny, or burnished.
2. The other from the original surface of the work-piece. This
surface does not come into contact with any solid body. This
surface has a jagged, rough appearance, which is caused by the
shearing mechanism shown in figure.
Basic types of chips produced in orthogonal metal cutting, their schematic representation, and
photomicrographs of the cutting zone: (a) continuous chip with narrow, straight, and primary shear
zone; (b) continuous chip with secondary shear zone at the chip-tool interface; (c) built-up edge; (d)
segmented or non-homogeneous chip; and (e) discontinuous chip. Source: After M.C. Shaw, P.K. Wright,
and S. Kalpakjian.
Formed with ductile
materials at high cutting
speeds and/or high rake
angles. a
Deformation of the
material takes place along
a narrow shear zone,
primary shear zone.
CCs may, because of
friction, develop a
secondary shear zone at
toolchip interface .b
The secondary zone
becomes thicker as tool
chip friction increases.
In CCs, deformation may
also take place along a
wide primary shear zone
with curved boundaries (F
The lower boundary is below the machined surface, subjecting
the machined surface to distortion, as depicted by the distorted
vertical lines.
This situation occurs particularly in machining soft metals at
low speeds and low rake angles.
It can produce poor surface finish and induce residual surface
stresses.
Although they generally produce good surface finish, CCs are
not always desirable.
BUE, consisting of layers of material from the workpiece that
are gradually deposited on the tool, may form at the tip of the
tool during cutting. D.
As it becomes larger, BUE becomes unstable and eventually
breads up.
Part of BUE material is carried away by the tool side of the chip;
the rest is deposited randomly on the work-piece surface.
The process of BUE formation and destruction is repeated
continuously during the cutting operation, unless measures are
taken to eliminate it.
Because of work hardening and deposition of successive layers
of material. BUE hardness increases significantly a.
BUE is generally undesirable.
A thin, stable BUE is sometimes desirable because it reduces wear
by protecting the rake face of the tool.
As cutting speed increases the size of BUE decreases.
The tendency for a BUE to form is reduced by any of the
following practices:
1. Increase the cutting speeds
2. Decreasing depth of cut
3. Increasing the rake angle
4. Using a sharp tool
5. Using an effective cutting fluid
6. Use a cutting tool that has lower chemical affinity for the
work-piece material.
Figure : (a) Hardness distribution with a built-up edge in the cutting zone (material, 3115 steel). Note
that some regions in the built-up edge are as much as three times harder than the bulk metal of the
workpiece. (b) Surface finish produced in turning 5130 steel with a built-up edge. (c) Surface finish
on 1018 steel in face milling. Magnifications: 15x. Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research Associates,
Inc.
(b)
(c)
Serrated chips: semi-continuous chips with zones of low and
high shear strain fig e
Metals with low thermal conductivity and strength that
decreases sharply with temperature, such as titanium, exhibit
this behavior.
The chips have a saw-tooth-like appearance.
DCs consist of segments that may be firmly or loosely
attached to each other.
DCs usually form under the following conditions:
1. Brittle workpiece materials
2. Workpiece materials that contain hard inclusions and
impurities, or have structures such as the graphite flakes in
gray cast iron.
3. Very low or very high cutting speeds.
4. Large depths of cut.
5. Low rake angles.
6. Lack of an effective cutting fluid.
7. Low stiffness of the machine tool.
Because of the discontinuous nature of chip formation, forces
continually vary during cutting.
Hence, the stiffness or rigidity of the cutting-tool holder, the
Workholding devices, and the machine tool are important in
cutting with both DC and serrated-chip formation
Figure (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip
breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the chip and eventually breaks it. (b) Chip
breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools acting
as chip breakers. Most cutting toold used now are inserts with built-in chip breaker
features.
CBs increase the effective rake
angle of the tool and,
consequently, increase the
shear angle.
Chips can also be broken by
changing the tool geometry,
thereby controlling chip flow,
as in the turning operations
shown in Fig.
Experience has indicated that
the ideal chip is in the shape of
the letter C or the number 9 and
fits within a 25 mm square
block.
Figure 21.8 Chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and
breaks; (c) continuous chip moving radially away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool
shank and breaks off. Source: After G. Boothroyd.
With soft workpiece materials such as pure aluminum or
copper, chip breaking by such means is generally not effective.
Common techniques used with such materials, include
machining at small increments and then pausing (so that a chip
is not generated) or reversing the feed by small increments.
In interrupted cutting operations, such as milling, chip
breakers are generally not necessary, since the chips already
have finite lengths because of the intermittent nature of the
operation.
Chip in Fig. 21.9a f lows
up the rake face of the tool
at angle c (chip flow
angle), which is measured
in the plane of the tool
face.
Angle
n
, the normal rake
angle, is a basic geometric
property of the tool. This
is the angle between the
normal oz to the workpiece
surface and the line oa on
the tool face.
The workpiece material
approaches the tool at a
velocity V and leaves the
surface (as a chip) with a
velocity Vc
Figure (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique
tool. Note the direction of chip movement. (b) Top view,
showing the inclination angle, i,. (c) Types of chips
produced with tools at increasing inclination angles.
Effective rake angle
e
is calculated
in the plane of these two velocities.
Assuming that the chip f low angle
c is equal to the inclination angle i, the
effective rake angle
e
is

As i increases, the effective rake
angle increases and the chip becomes
thinner and longer.
Knowledge of the cutting forces and power involved in
machining operations is important for the following reasons:
a. Machine tools can be properly designed to minimize
distortion of the machine components, maintain the desired
dimensional accuracy of the machined part, and help select
appropriate tool holders and work-holding devices.
b. The workpiece is capable of withstanding these forces
without excessive distortion.
c. Power requirements must be known in order to enable the
selection of a machine tool with adequate electric power.

Cutting force, Fc, acts in the direction of cutting speed, V, and
supplies energy required for cutting.
Thrust force, Ft , acts in a direction normal to cutting velocity,
perpendicular to WP. The resultant force, R can be resolved into
two components :
Friction force: F, along the tool-chip interface
Normal force: N, perpendicular to it.
F = R sin (21.8a)
N = R cos (21.8b)
R is balanced by an equal and opposite force along the shear plane and
is resolved into a shear force, Fs, and a normal force, Fn
Fs = Fc cos Ft sin (21.9)
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos (21.10)

Figure 21.11 (a) Forces acting on a cutting tool during two-dimensional cutting. Note
that the resultant force, R, must be collinear to balance the forces. (b) Force circle to
determine various forces acting in the cutting zone.
The ratio of F to N is the coefficient of friction, , at the tool-
chip interface, and the angle is the friction angle.

(21.11)

The coefficient of friction in metal cutting generally ranges
from about 0.5 to 2.
o
o
tan
tan
friction, of t Coefficien
t c
c t
F F
F F
N
F
+
= =
If the thrust force is too high or if the machine tool is not
sufficiently stiff, the tool will be pushed away from the surface
being machined.
This movement will, in turn, reduce the depth of cut, resulting
in lack of dimensional accuracy in the machined part, As the
rake angle increases and/or friction at the rake face decreases,
this force can act upward.
This situation can be visualized by noting that when = 0
(that is, = 0), the resultant force, R, coincides with the
normal force, N.
In this case, R will have a thrust-force component that is
upward.

EXAMPLE : Relative Energies in Cutting
In an orthogonal cutting operation, to = 0.13 mm, V = 120 m/min,
= 10 and the width of cut = 6 mm. It is observed that tc = 0.23
mm, Fc = 500 N and Ft = 200 N. Calculate the percentage of the
total energy that goes into overcoming friction at the tool-chip
interface.
Solution The percentage of the energy can be expressed as:
EXAMPLE: Relative Energies in Cutting

The main sources of heat generation are the primary shear
zone and the tool-chip interface.
If the tool is dull or worn, heat is also generated when the tool
tip rubs against the machined surface.
Cutting temperatures increase with:
1. strength of the workpiece material
2. cutting speed
3. depth of cut
Cutting temperatures decrease with increasing specific heat
and thermal conductivity of workpiece material.
The mean temperature in turning on a lathe is proportional to the
cutting speed and feed:
Mean temperature V
a
f
b

a and b are constants that depend on tool and workpiece
materials, V is the cutting speed, and f is the feed of the tool.

Max temperature is about halfway up the face of the tool.
As speed increases, the time for heat dissipation decreases
and temperature rises

Tool
Material
a B
Carbide 0.2 0.125
HSS 0.5 0.375
Figure : Typical temperature distribution in
the cutting zone. Note the severe
temperature gradients within the tool and
the chip, and that the workpiece is relatively
cool. Source: After G. Vieregge.
Figure : Proportion of the heat generated in
cutting transferred into the tool, workpiece, and
chip as a function of the cutting speed. Note
that the chip removes most of the heat.
Conditions that would cause tool wear:
1. High localized stresses
2. High temp
3. Sliding of chip along the rack face
4. Sliding of the tool along the machined surface
The rate of wear depends on:
1. Tool and workpiece materials
2. Tool shape
3. Cutting fluids
4. Process parameters
5. Machine tool characteristics
The Cutting tool should be replaced when:
1. Surface finish of the workpiece is poor
2. Cutting force increases significantly
3. Temperature increases significantly
4. Poor dimensional accuracies

Figure: (a) Flank wear
and crater wear in a
cutting tool; the tool
moves to the left as in
Fig. (b) View of the rake
face of a turning tool,
showing various wear
patterns. (c) View of the
flank face of a turning
tool, showing various
wear patterns. (d) Types
of wear on a turning tool:
1. flank wear; 2. crater
wear; 3. chipped cutting
edge; 4. thermal cracking
on rake face; 5. built-up
edge; 6. catastrophic
failure.
VT
n
= C (Taylor Equation)
T = time required to develop certain flank wear land (fig c)
n & C= exponents that depend on tool and workpiece materials
and cutting conditions
see table 21.3 for n values
To take into account feed rate and depth of cut effects on wear,
equation is modified:
V T
n
d
x
f
y
= C
here it can be seen that for constant values of C, the smaller the
value of n, the lower is the tool life
Cutting speed is the most important process variable associated
with tool life followed by depth of cut d and feed f.

VT
n
= C
VT
n
d
x
f
y
= C
Taylor Equation:
Figure : Tool-life curves for a
variety of cutting-tool materials.
The negative inverse of the slope
of these curves is the exponent n
in the Taylor tool-life equation and
C is the cutting speed at T = 1
min, ranging from about 200 to
10,000 ft./min in this figure.
(a) Schematic illustration of types of wear observed on various cutting tools. (b) Schematic illustrations
of catastrophic tool failures. A wide range of parameters influence these wear and failure patterns.
Chipping: small fragments from the CE breaks away [sudden
loss of material] . Brittle CT like ceramic.
Two main causes:
1. Mechanical shock: (i.e., impact due to interrupted cutting, as
in turning a splined shaft on a lathe).
2. Thermal fatigue: (i.e., cyclic variations in the temperature of
the tool in interrupted cutting)
Thermal cracks normal to the cutting edge of the tool.
Chipping may occur in a region in the tool where a small crack
or defect already exists
High +ve rake angles can contribute to chipping
Its possible for crater wear region to progress toward the tool
tip, weakening the tip and causing chipping
Due to decreasing in yield strength from high temp during cutting, tools may
soften and undergo plastic deform
This type of deformation generally occurs when machining high-strength
metals and alloys.
Therefore, tools must be able to maintain their strength and hardness at
elevated temperature.
Wear groove or notch on cutting tools is due to:
1. This region is the boundary where chip is no longer in contact with the
tool
2. This boundary known as DOC line, oscillates because of inherent
variations in the cutting operation and accelerates the wear process
3. This region is in contact with the machined surface from the previous cut
4. Since a machined surface may develop a thin work-hardened layer, this
contact could contribute to the formation of the wear groove
Light cuts should not be taken on rusted workpieces.
1. Direct techniques
optical measurement of wear
done using toolmaker microscope
1. Indirect methods
correlation of tool condition with process variables: forces,
power, temp rise, surface finish, and vibration
A. Acoustic emission technique (AE)
Utilizes a piezo-electric transducer attached to tool holder
The transducer picks up acoustic emissions that result from the
stress waves generated during cutting.
By analyzing the signals, tool wear and chipping can be
monitored
B. Transducers are installed in original machine tools
Continually monitor torque and forces during cutting
Signals are pre-amplified and microprocessor analyses and
interprets their content
The system is capable of differentiating the signals that come
from tool breakage, tool wear, a missing tool, overloading of
the machine, or colliding machine comp
The system also auto compensate for tool wear and thus
improve dim accuracy
C. Monitoring by tool-cycle time
In CNC expected tool life in entered into the machine control
unit, when it is reached, the operator makes the tool change.
9/26/2014
10
0 Dr M Varaprasada Rao
9/26/2014
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SF: geometric Features of surfaces
SI: refers to properties such as fatigue life and corrosion
resistance.
Factors influencing SI:
1. temp
2. residual stresses
3. metallurgical transformations
4. surface plastic deform, tearing and cracking
BUE has greatest influence on SF
9/26/2014
10
(a) (b)
Machined surfaces produced on steel (highly magnified),
as observed with a scanning electron microscope: (a)
turned surface and (b) surface produced by shaping.
Source: Courtesy of J. T. Black and S. Ramalingam.
Rubbing generates heat
and induce residual stresses
causing surface
damage
DOC should be greater
than the radius of the
cutting edge.
the built-up edge has the
greatest influence on
surface finish. Figure 21.21
9/26/2014
10
Schematic illustration of a dull tool with respect to the depth of cut in
orthogonal machining (exaggerated). Note that the tool has a positive
rake angle, but as the depth of cut decreases, the rake angle effectively can
become negative. The tool then simply rides over the workpiece (without
cutting) and burnishes its surface; this action raises the workpiece
temperature and causes surface residual stresses.
9/26/2014
10
Schematic illustration of feed marks on a
surface being turned (exaggerated).

R
a
=
f
2
8R
where
f = feed
R = tool - nose radius
Surface roughness:
the higher the feed, and the
smaller the tool-nose radius, R,
the more prominent these marks
will be.
Vibration and chatter adversely
affect surface finish because a
vibrating tool periodically changes
the dimensions of the cut.
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Machinability of a material is defined in terms of 4 factors:
1. SF and SI of the machined part
2. tool life
3. force and power req
4. chip control
Tool life and SF: most important factors in machinability
Machinability ratings
based on a tool life, T = 60min
standard material is AISI 1112 steel (resulfurized), given a
rating of 100
for a tool life of 60 min, this steel should be machined at speed
of 100 ft/min
9/26/2014
10
Improved by adding lead and sulfur (free machining steels)
Resulfurized & Rephosphorized Steels
S forms manganese sulfide inclusions (2nd phase particles)
Act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone
So chips break up easily and are small
P has 2 major effects:
1. It strengthens ferrite, causing increased hardness, resulting
in better chip formation and SF
2. Increased hardness causes the formation of short chips
9/26/2014
10
Source of heat is focused to an area just ahead of the cutting
tool
Advantages are:
1. lower cutting forces
2. increased tool life
3. use of inexpensive cutting tool materials
4. higher material removal rates
5. reduced tendency for vibration and chatter

9/26/2014
10
FIGURE : Terminology used in a turning operation on a lathe, where f is the feed (in./rev or
mm/rev) and d is the depth of cut. Note that feed in turning is equivalent to the depth of cut in
orthogonal cutting and the depth of cut in turning is equivalent to the turning is equivalent to
the width of cut in orthogonal cutting.
9/26/2014
10
FIGURE (a) Crater wear and (b) flank wear on a
carbide tool. Source: J. C, Keefe, Lehigh
University.
9/26/2014
11
FIGURE : Construction of polycrystalline cubic-boron-nitride or
diamond layer on a tungsten-carbide insert.
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11
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11
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11
FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation
showing depth of cut, d, and feed, f. cutting speed is the
surface speed of the work-piece at the tool tip. (b) Forces
acting on a cutting tool in turning. F
c
is the cutting force;
F
t
is the thrust or feed force (in the direction of feed); and
F
r
is the radial force that tends to push the tool away from
the workpiece being machined. Compare this figure with a
two-dimensional cutting operation.
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11
Shear Plane Length
and Angle |
Shear plane length AB =
t
0
sin|
Shear pl ane angl e (|) = Tan
-1 rcoso
1-rsi no
or make an assumption, such as | adjusts to minimize
cutting force:

| = 45
0
+ o/2 - |/2 (Merchant)
|
t
c
t
o
(|o)
A
B
Chip
tool
Workpiece
9/26/2014
11
Velocities
(2D Orthogonal
Model)
Velocity Diagram
Frommass continuity: Vt
o
= V
c
t
c
From the Vel oci ty di agram:
V
s
= V
coso
cos(|o)
V
c
= Vr and V
c
= V
si n|
cos(|o)
(Chip relative

to workpiece)
V = Chip Velocity

(Chip relative to tool)
Tool
Workpiece
Chip
V
s V = Cutting Velocity
(Tool relative to

workpiece)
Shear Velocity
c
o
| o
90 |
|
V
s
V
c
V
9/26/2014
11
Cutting Forces
(2D Orthogonal Cutting)
Free Body Diagram
Generally we know:
Tool geometry & type
Workpiece material

and we wish to know:
F = Cutting Force
F = Thrust Force
F = Friction Force
N = Normal Force
F = Shear Force
F = Force Normal

to Shear
c
t
s
n
Tool
Workpiece
Chip
Dynamometer
R
R
R
R
F
c
F
t
|
s
F
F
n
N
F
9/26/2014
11
Force Circle Diagram
(Merchants Circle)
R
F
t
F
c
Tool
F
N
o
| o
|
o
o
F
s
|
| o
|
F
n
9/26/2014
11
Results from
Force Circle Diagram
(Merchant's Circle)
Friction Force F = F
c
sino + F
t
coso
Normal Force N= F
c
coso - F
t
sino
Shear Force F
s
= F
c
cos| - F
t
sin|
= F/N and = tan| (typically 0.5 - 2.0)
Force Normal to Shear plane F
n
= F
c
sin| + F
t
cos|

9/26/2014
11

Forces on the Cutting Tool
and the workpiece

Importance: Stiffness of tool holder, stiffness of machine, and
stiffness of workpiece must be sufficient to avoid significant
deflections (dimensional accuracy and surface finish)
Primary cause: Friction force of chip up rake face + Shearing
force along shear plane
Cutting speed does not effect tool forces much (friction forces
decrease slightly as velocity increases; static friction is the
greatest)
The greater the depth of cut the greater the forces on the tool
Using a coolant reduces the forces slightly but greatly
increases tool life
9/26/2014
12
Stresses
On the Shear plane:

Normal Stress = o
s
= Normal Force / Area =
F
n
AB w
=
F
n
sin|
t
o
w
Shear Stress = t
s
= Shear Force / Area =
F
s
AB w
=
F
s
sin|
t
o
w
On the tool rake face:

o = Normal Force / Area =
N
t
c
w
(often assume t
c
= contact length)
t = Shear Force / Area =
F
t
c
w
Note: t
s
= t
y
= yield strength of the material in shear
9/26/2014
12
Power (or energy consumed per unit time) is the product
of force and velocity. Power at the cutting spindle:

Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and on the
rake face:

Actual Motor Power requirements will depend on machine
efficiency E (%):

Cutting Power P
c
= F
c
V
Power for Shearing P
s
= F
s
V
s
Friction Power P
f
= FV
c
Motor Power Required =
P
c
E
x 100
9/26/2014
12
Material Removal Rate (MRR)
Material Removal Rate (MRR) =
Volume Removed
Time
Volume Removed = Lwt
o
Time to move a distance L = L/V
Therefore, MRR=
Lwt
o
L/V
= Vwt
o
MRR = Cutting velocity x width of cut x depth of cut
9/26/2014
12
Specific Cutting Energy
(or Unit Power)
Energy required to remove a unit volume of material (often quoted as
a function of workpiece material, tool and process:
U
t
=
Energy
Volume Removed
=
Energy per unit time
Volume Removed per unit time
Specific Energy for shearing U
s
=
F
s
V
s
Vwt
o
Specific Energy for friction U
f
=
FV
c
Vwt
o
=
Fr
wt
o
U
t
=
Cutting Power (P
c
)
Material Removal Rate (MRR)
=
F
c
V
Vwt
o
=
F
c
wt
o
9/26/2014
12
Decomposition

1. Shear Energy/unit volume (Us)
(required for deformation in shear zone)

2. Friction Energy/unit volume (Uf)
(expended as chip slides along rake face)

3. Chip curl energy/unit volume (Uc)
(expended in curling the chip)

4. Kinetic Energy/unit volume (Um)
(required to accelerate chip)
U
t
= U
s
+ U
f
+U
c
+U
m
9/26/2014
12

Relationship to Shear strength of Material
SHEAR ENERGY / UNIT VOLUME

Specific Energy for shearing U
s
=
F
s
V
s
Vwt
o
FRICTION ENERGY / UNIT VOLUME
Specific Energy for friction U
f
=
FV
c
Vwt
o
=
Fr
wt
o
=
F
wt
c
= t
APPROXIMATE TOTAL SPECIFIC CUTTING ENERGY
U
t
= U
s
+ U
f
= t
s
+ t = t
y
(1+ )
U
s
=
t
s
coso
si n| cos(|o)
= t
s
.
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12
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12
During this process three basic types of chips
are formed namely:
Discontinuous
Continuous
Continuous with a Built-Up Edge (BUE)
9/26/2014
12
Typically associated with brittle metals like Cast
Iron
As tool contacts work, some compression takes
place
As the chip starts up the chip-tool interference
zone, increased stress occurs until the metal
reaches a saturation point and fractures off the
work piece.
9/26/2014
12
Conditions which favor
this type of chip
Brittle work material
Small rake angles on cutting
tools
Coarse machining feeds
Low cutting speeds
Major disadvantagecould
result in poor surface finish
9/26/2014
13
Continuous ribbon of metal that flows up
the chip/tool zone.
Usually considered the ideal condition for
efficient cutting action.
9/26/2014
13

9/26/2014
13
Conditions which favor this type of chip:
Ductile work
Fine feeds
Sharp cutting tools
Larger rake angles
High cutting speeds
Proper coolants
9/26/2014
13
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13
Same process as continuous, but as the
metal begins to flow up the chip-tool zone,
small particles of the metal begin to adhere
or weld themselves to the edge of the
cutting tool.
As the particles continue to weld to the tool
it affects the cutting action of the tool.
9/26/2014
13
This type of chip is
common in softer non-
ferrous metals and low
carbon steels.
Problems
Welded edges break off and
can become embedded in
workpiece
Decreases tool life
Can result in poor surface
finishes

9/26/2014
13
In metal cutting the power input into the
process in largely converted to heat.
This elevates the temperature of the chips,
work-piece and tool.
These elements along with the coolant act as
heat sinks.
So lets look at coolants
9/26/2014
13
Cutting fluids are used extensively in metal
removal processes and they
Act as a coolant, lubricant, and assist in removal of
chips.
Primary mission of cutting fluids is to extend tool life
by keeping keep temperatures down.
Most effective coolant is water
However, it is hardly ever used by itself.
Typically mixed with a water soluble oil to add
corrosion resistance and add lubrication capabilities.
9/26/2014
13
Environmental Concerns
Machine systems and Maintenance
Operators Safety
9/26/2014
13
Machining Operations can be classified into
two major categories:
Single point = Turning on a Lathe
Multiple tooth cutters = pocket milling on a vertical
milling machine
9/26/2014
14
Inputs
Work material
Type of Cut
Part Geometry and Size
Lot size
Machinability data
Quality needed
Past experience of the decision maker
9/26/2014
14
Manufacturing Practice
Machine Condition
Finish part Requirements
Work holding devices/Gigs
Required Process Time

Outputs
Selected Tools
Cutting parameters
9/26/2014
14
9/26/2014
14
High Hardness
Resistance to Abrasion and Wear
Strength to resist bulk deformation
Adequate thermal properties
Consistent Tool life
Correct Geometry
9/26/2014
14
Wide variety of materials and compositions
are available to choose from when selecting a
cutting tool
We covered these in the previous chapter
9/26/2014
14
The geometry of a cutting tool is determined
by three factors:
Properties of the Tool material
Properties of the Work piece
Type of Cut
9/26/2014
14
The most important geometrys to consider
on a cutting tool are
Back Rake Angles
End Relief Angles
Side Relief Angles
9/26/2014
14
9/26/2014
14
Back-Allows the tool to shear the work and
form the chip.
It can be positive or negative
Positive = reduced cutting forces, limited deflection
of work, tool holder and machine
Negative = typically used to machine harder
metals-heavy cuts
The side and back rake angle combine to
from the true rake angle
9/26/2014
14
Small to medium rake angles cause:
high compression
high tool forces
high friction
result = Thickhighly deformedhot chips
9/26/2014
15
Larger positive rake
angles
Reduce compression
and less chance of a
discontinuous chip
Reduce forces
Reduce friction
Result = A thinner, less
deformed, and cooler
chip.
9/26/2014
15
Problems.as we increase the angle:
Reduce strength of tool
Reduce the capacity of the tool to conduct heat
away from the cutting edge.
To increase the strength of the tool and allow it to
conduct heat better, in some tools, zero to negative
rake angles are used.

9/26/2014
15
Typical tool materials which utilize negative
rakes are:
Carbide
Diamonds
Ceramics
These materials tend to be much more brittle
than HSS but they hold superior hardness at
high temperatures.
The negative rake angles transfer the cutting
forces to the tool which help to provide added
support to the cutting edge.
9/26/2014
15
9/26/2014
15
Positive rake angles
Reduced cutting forces
Smaller deflection of work, tool holder, and
machine
Considered by some to be the most efficient way to
cut metal
Creates large shear angle, reduced friction and heat
Allows chip to move freely up the chip-tool zone
Generally used for continuous cuts on ductile
materials which are not to hard or brittle
9/26/2014
15
Negative rake angles
Initial shock of work to tool is on the face of the
tool and not on the point or edge. This prolongs
the life of the tool.
Higher cutting speeds/feeds can be employed

9/26/2014
15
Factors to consider for tool angles
The hardness of the metal
Type of cutting operation
Material and shape of the cutting tool
The strength of the cutting edge

9/26/2014
15
9/26/2014
15
A.N.S.I. Insert Identification
System
ANSI - B212.4-1986
M1-Fine
M2-Medium
M3-S.S
M4-Cast
iron
M5-General
Purpose
9/26/2014
15
9/26/2014
16
Single point cutting tool removes material from
a rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,
Turning
Used to create a round hole, usually by means
of a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting
edges
Drilling
9/26/2014
16
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral (side) milling and face
(end) milling
(c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.
Milling
9/26/2014
16
1. Single-Point Tools
One dominant cutting edge
Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
More than one cutting edge
Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple
cutting edge tools
9/26/2014
16
(a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b)
a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges.
Cutting Tools
9/26/2014
16
Three dimensions of a machining
process:
Cutting speed v primary motion
Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool
below original work surface
For certain operations, material
removal rate can be computed as
R
MR
= v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d
= depth of cut
9/26/2014
16
Cutting Conditions for Turning
Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.
9/26/2014
16
In production, several roughing cuts are
usually taken on the part, followed by one or
two finishing cuts
Roughing - removes large amounts of
material from starting workpart
Creates shape close to desired geometry, but
leaves some material for finish cutting
High feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - completes part geometry
Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
9/26/2014
16
A power-driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
Functions in machining:
Holds workpart
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that
have been set
The term is also applied to machines that
perform metal forming operations
9/26/2014
16
where r = chip thickness ratio; t
o
=
thickness of the chip prior to chip
formation; and t
c
= chip thickness after
separation
Chip thickness after cut is always
greater than before, so chip ratio
always less than 1.0
c
o
t
t
r =
9/26/2014
17
to
tc
9/26/2014
17
Based on the geometric
parameters of the orthogonal
model, the shear plane angle |
can be determined as:
where r = chip ratio, and o = rake angle
o
o
|
sin
cos
tan
r
r
=
1
9/26/2014
17
Figure 21.7 Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip
formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative
to each other, (b) one of the plates isolated to show shear
strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain
equation.
Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Shear strain in machining can be
computed from the following
equation, based on the preceding
parallel plate model:
= tan(| - o) + cot |

where = shear strain, | = shear
plane angle, and o = rake angle of
cutting tool
Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
Shear force F
s
and Normal force to shear F
n

Forces in metal cutting:
(a) forces acting on the
chip in orthogonal cutting
Forces Acting on Chip
9/26/2014
17
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of F
s
and F
n
= resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R' must be equal in magnitude to R
R must be opposite in direction to R
R must be collinear with R
9/26/2014
17
F, N, F
s
, and F
n
cannot be directly measured
Forces acting on the tool that can be
measured:
Cutting force F
c
and Thrust force F
t

Figure 21.10 Forces
in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
9/26/2014
17
7
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:
N
F
=
| tan =
9/26/2014
17
F
F
N
Fn
Fs
R
9/26/2014
17
F
F
N
R
9/26/2014
18
F
F
N
R
Ft
Fc
9/26/2014
18
F
F
N
R
Ft
Fc
F = F
c
sin o + F
t
cos o
N = F
c
cos o - F
t
sin o
9/26/2014
18
F
F
N
Fn
Fs
R
9/26/2014
18
F
Fn
Fs
R
9/26/2014
18
F
Fn
Fs
R
Fc
Ft
9/26/2014
18
F
Fn
Fs
R
Fc
Ft
F
s
= F
c
cos | - F
t
sin |
F
n
= F
c
sin | + F
t
cos |
9/26/2014
18
Thus equations can be derived to relate the
forces that cannot be measured to the forces
that can be measured:
F = F
c
sino + F
t
coso
N = F
c
coso - F
t
sino
F
s
= F
c
cos| - F
t
sin|
F
n
= F
c
sin| + F
t
cos|
Based on these calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined
9/26/2014
18
Significance of Cutting forces
In the set of following force balance equations:-
F = F
c
sin o + F
t
cos o F = friction force; N = normal to chip force
N = F
c
cos o - F
t
sin o F
c
= cutting force; F
t
= thrust force
F
s
= F
c
cos | - F
t
sin | F
s
= shear force; F
n
= normal to shear plane force
F
n
= F
c
sin | + F
t
cos |

Friction angle = |

tan | = = F/N

Shear plane stress:

t = F
s
/A
s

where

A
s
= t
o
w/sin |
Forces are presented as function of
F
c
and F
t
because these can be
measured.
9/26/2014
18
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
| sin
w t
A
o
s
=
where A
s
= area of the shear plane
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting
s
s
A
F
S =
9/26/2014
18
Cutting forces given shear strength
Letting S = shear strength, we can derive the following
equations for the cutting and thrust forces*:

F
s
= S A
s

F
c
= F
s
cos ( | o)/|cos ( | + | o)|
F
t
= F
s
sin ( | o)/|cos ( | + | o)|

* The other forces can be determined from the equations on the previous
slide.
9/26/2014
19
Machining example
In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10, chip thickness before
cut is t
o
= 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is t
c
= 0.045 in. The cutting
and thrust forces are measured at F
c
= 350 lb and F
t
= 285 lb while at a
cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear
stress, and cutting horsepower.
Solution (shear strain):
Determine r = 0.02/0.045 = 0.444
Determine shear plane angle from tan | = r cos o /[1 r sin o]
tan | = 0.444 cos 10 /[1 0.444 sin 10] => | = 25.4
Now calculate shear strain from = tan(| - o) + cot |
= tan(25.4 - 10) + cot 25.4 = 2.386 in/in answer!
9/26/2014
19
Machining example (cont.)
cut is t
o
c
c
= 350 lb and F
t
= 285 lb while at a
Solution (shear stress):
Determine shear force from F
s
= F
c
cos | - F
t
sin |
F
s
= 350 cos 25.4 - 285 sin 25.4 = 194 lb
Determine shear plane area from A
s
= t
o
w/sin |
A
s
= (0.02) (0.125)/sin 25.4= 0.00583 in
2
The shear stress is
t = 194/0.00583 = 33,276 lb/in
2
answer!
9/26/2014
19
Machining example (cont.)
cut is t
o
c
c
= 350 lb and F
t
= 285 lb while at a

Solution (cutting horsepower):
Determine cutting hp from hp
c
= F
c
v/33,000
hp
c
= (350) (200)/33,000 = 2.12 hp answer!
Shear Plane Angle = tan
-1
[(r cos )/(1 r sin )]
Shear Strain = tan(| - o) + cot |
Forces in Cutting:
F = Fc sino + Ft coso
N = Fc coso - Ft sino
Fs = Fc cos| - Ft sin|
Fn = Fc sin| + Ft cos|
Forces Fc and Ft in terms of Fs:
F
c
= F
s
cos ( | o)/|cos ( | + | o)|
F
t
= F
s
sin ( | o)/|cos ( | + | o)|
Merchant Relation:
| = 45 + o/2|/2
Shear Stress:
t = F
s
/A
s

where A
s
= t
o
w/sin |
Cutting Power:
P = V F
c
/ 33,000 hp (V in ft /s and F
c
in lb)
P = V F
c
/ 1000 kW (V in m /s and F
c
in N)
P
G
= P
c
/ E

9/26/2014
194

Metal Cutting Theory For Mechanical Engineers

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9/26/2014

9/26/2014 82 Dr M Varaprasada Rao

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