Grammar

Definition

The grammar of a language is a system in general, that may
be analyzed and studied on these three levels:

Phonology- set of sounds / symbols
Morphology- combinations of sounds that carry single
units of meaning
Syntax- how single units of meaning are combined to
form words, phrases and sentences.

Noun
Parts of Speech
Nouns

1. Definition-
2. Proper / common
3. Singular / plural
4. Count / Non-count / Abstract (how much how many)
5. Collective Nouns- Army, Police, Jury, Assembly
6. Material Nouns- Wood, Paper, Silk, Iron, Stone, Gold
Definition
(Common & Proper nouns)

Nouns words used to name a person, place, thing,
object, quality, idea, concept, or an action.

Proper Nouns- special or particular name given to
common nouns to distinguish them from others of the
same kind.

Example:
Common- Woman
Proper- Martha

Common Proper Common Proper
Day Saturday Associations Lions Club
Month October Movies Titanic
Mountain Mt. Everest Planets Earth
River The Amazon City Jalandhar
Ocean Pacific Ocean Historical
periods
Mugals / Aryans
Book Winning
Jack Welch
Language English
Newspaper Times of India Nationality Indian
Religion Sikhism / Hindu /
Muslim / Catholic
School course English
Brand of product Colgate Institutions GNA IMT
Singular & Plural Nouns
Rule No. 1
Add s to the end of noun
cup cups
student students

Rule No.2
consonants before y
change y to i and add es
City cities
Party parties
Lady ladies

Rule No.3
vowels before y
add s
Boy boys
Key keys
Day days
Rule No. 4
(f and fe endings)
change the f or fe to v and es
Life lives
Wife wives
Thief thieves

Rule No. 5
(sh, ch, x, ss endings) add es
Bush bushes
Match matches
Box boxes
Kiss kisses

Rule No. 6
(consonant + o) add es
(vowel +o) s
tomato tomatoes
radio radios

Pronunciation of plurals (s / es)
Group A
Final s is pronounced /z/ after voiced sounds
(taxicabs, beds, dogs, balls, years, days, boys, trees, etc.)

Group B
Final s is pronounced /s/ after voiceless sounds
(books, cups, groups, cats, students, desks, etc.)

Group C
Final s, es is pronounced /ez/
after s sounds (classes, horses, boxes, faces)
after z sounds (sizes, roses, noises)
after sh sounds (dishes, bushes)
after ch sounds (matches, sandwiches)
after ge/dge sounds (pages, ages, bridges, edges)

Exceptions- Irregular plural forms

Child children
Foot feet
Man men
Woman women
Mouse mice
Tooth teeth
Fish fish
People people
(is always plural - no s)
Count & Non-count
Count nouns


books
a book
one book
two books
some books
a lot of book
many books
a few books

Non-count nouns

money
some money
a lot of money
much money
a little money
Common non-count nouns
Advice peace
Furniture homework
Love luck
Information food
Mail music
Traffic weather
work bread
Cheese coffee
Rice meat
Milk water
The Noun: Gender
Classified as-
1. Masculine: John, Man, Horse, Lion
2. Feminine: Mary, Woman, Mare, Lioness
3. Common: Student, Parent, Cousin, Teacher, Relation, Orphan,
Neighbor, Bird, Baby, Thief
4. Neuter: Nouns of things without life- Building, tree, chair etc..

Objects associated with strength are often regarded as males-
The Sun, Summer, Winter, Time, Death etc..
Objects associated with Beauty, gentleness are often regarded as
females-
The Moon, The Earth, Hope, Spring, Peace, Charity etc..
A Ship is always spoken as She
Formation of Feminine Nouns

1) Entirely different word as-

Masculine
Boy
Brother
Father
Gentleman
Dog
Buck

Feminine
Girl
Sister
Mother
Lady
Bitch
Doe
Formation of Feminine Nouns
2. By adding -ess


God Godess
Host Hostess
Lion Lioness
Poet Poetess
Priest Priestess
Author Authoress
3. By adding -ess after
dropping the vowel as-

Actor Actress
Prince Princess
Tiger Tigress
Hunter Huntress
Waiter Waitress
Director Directress

Formation of Feminine Nouns
4. a word before or after

Fisherman Fisherwoman
Grandfather Grandmother
Landlord Landlady
Bull calf Cow calf
He-devil She-devil
5. Foreign words-

Sultan Sultana
Monsieur Madame
Signor Signora
Rules of usage of Nouns
Rule 1
The following nouns are used
in the same form, whether
singular or plural.

Deer
Sheep
Fish
Apparatus
Yoke

A large number of sheep died
due to polluted water.
Rule 2
The following nouns are
singular in form but are used
as plurals.
Progeny People
Alphabet Swine
Poultry Cattle
Peasantry Police
Company Gentry
Clergy Infantry

Many cattle were grazing in the
field.

Rules of usage of Nouns
Rule 3
The following nouns are plural
in form. Their form is not
changed whether these are
used as singular or plural.

Odds Spectacles
Tidings Trousers
Intestines Annals
Riches Credentials
Scissors Gymnastics
Measles Breeches
Wages Proceeds

Wages have been increased.
Wages of sin is death.
Rule 4
The following nouns are plural
in form but are used as
singulars-

News
Innings
Physics
Statistics
Economics
Mathematics

No cricket innings is scheduled
for this evening.
Rules of usage of Nouns
Rule 6
Material nouns like-
Brick
Stone
Marble
Iron
Wood
Such nouns are changed into
plurals when they denote a
mass of matter.

The building is made up of brick
and stone.

Rule 7
When a noun serves the
purpose of an adjective in a
compound word (a word made
up of two nouns), it is not
changed into plural form.

A ten-rupee note
Four-mile race
Five-man delegation


This five rupee note is a soiled
one.
Rule 8
Possessive case of a noun (noun with s) is used:

(a) With living things:
- Mohans cap
- Rams school
- Sisters birthday
This rooms carpet must be
changed.
The carpet of this room must be
changed.

(b) With personified things

- Fortunes wheel
- Natures law
- Fates doing
(c) With time or weight or space.
- Days work
- Minutes' rest
- Nights journey


(d) For objects with dignity.
- courts room

(e) In some phrases like

out of harms way,
at his wits end.

Rules of usage of Nouns
Rule 10

When two nouns are joined by
and apostrophe (s) is added
to both if we want to denote
the possession of both and to
last if we denote joint
possession.

Suzys and Johns father was
present.
Suzy and Johns father was
present.
Rule 11

Sometimes s is wrongly put in
place of a preposition.

This authors book is not good.
(Book possessed by this
author)

The book of this author is not
good
(Book written by this author)
Rules of usage of Nouns
Rule 12
Double possessives should not
be used.
My mothers brothers daughter
came.
The daughter of the brother of
my mother came.
Rule 13
In the case of somebody else,
everyone else, anybody
else, anyone else etc., is put
after else.
This is somebodys else job.
This is somebody elses job.
Rule 14
When we speak of two things of
the same class the word other
should not be left out.
Neither his brother nor any
other member of the family
helped him.
Rules 17
If a noun is used twice and is
compounded with two different
adjectives, it must be used
twice.
What is your opinion about our
home policy and foreign policy.
Pronoun
A Pronoun is a word used instead of Noun. It helps us avoid
repetition of the noun every time we make a reference to the same
noun.

Ram is at school. Ram ate an apple during his lunch break but Ram
is still hungry.
Ram is at school. He ate an apple during his lunch break but he is
still hungry.

Personal Pronouns
I, me, mine
you, your, yours
she, her, hers,
it, its
we, us, our, ours
they, them, their,
Myself, Yourself

Demonstrative Pronouns
this
that
these
those
Indefinite Pronouns

anybody
each
either
none
someone, one, etc.



Interrogative Pronouns

who
whom
what
which
whose