Chapter 5

Memory
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An Interesting Phenomenon:
Flashbulb Memories
See in class!
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Topics to Explore
1. Stages of Memory
2. Encoding Information into Memory
3. Retrieving Information from Memory
4. Improving Memory



Part 1
Stages of Memory
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Memory: Active system that stores, organizes, alters, and
recovers (retrieves) information
Encoding: Converting information into a useable form
Storage: Holding this information in memory
Retrieval: Taking memories out of storage
Memory: Key Terms
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Stages of Memory
1. Sensory Memory
2. Short-Term Memory
3. Long-Term Memory
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Sensory Memory: Storing an exact copy of incoming
information for less than a second; the first stage of memory

Icon: A fleeting mental image or visual representation

Echo: After a sound is heard, a brief continuation of the sound
in the auditory system
Sensory Memory
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A Little Demonstration of
Sensory Memory
See in class!
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A Little Demonstration of
Sensory Memory
See in class!
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Short-Term Memory (STM): second stage of memory; stores
small amounts of information briefly; very sensitive to
interruption or interference
Phonetically: Storing information by sound; how most things
are stored in STM
Memory Span: STM is limited to holding seven (plus or minus
two) information bits at once
Chunk: Meaningful units of information in memory

Short-Term Memory (STM)
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Recoding: Reorganizing or modifying information in STM

Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information silently to
prolong its presence in STM

Elaborative Rehearsal: Links new information with existing
memories and knowledge in LTM; Good way to transfer STM
information into LTM
Storing Info in STM
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A Little Demonstration of
Short-Term Memory
See in class!
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A Little Demonstration of
Short-Term Memory
See in class!
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A Little Demonstration
of Chunking
See in class!
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Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Storing information relatively permanently
Stored on basis of meaning and importance
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
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Explicit (declarative) memory (facts): factual knowledge &
personal experiences
Semantic Memory: Impersonal facts and everyday
knowledge
Episodic Memory: Personal experiences linked with
specific times and places
Implicit (procedural) Memory (skills): Long-term memories
of conditioned responses and learned skills, e.g., driving
Types of Long-Term Memory
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Example: Skill vs. Fact Memory
Amnesiac patient was able to solve tower puzzle in 31 moves
(minimum possible), but each time he began, he swore he
couldnt solve the puzzle. Evidence that skill memory and fact
memory are separate and distinct.
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Graphic: Patterns of Blood Flow
in Cerebral Cortex
Front of brain is related to episodic memory.
Back of brain is related to semantic memory.
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Memory Organizational Chart
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Loss of Memory
Anterograde amnesia: the inability to form new explicit long-
term memories for events following brain trauma or surgery.
Explicit memories formed before are left intact. Cause possibly
is damage to hippocampus
Retrograde amnesia: the disruption of memory for the past,
especially espisodic memory. After brain trauma or surgery,
there often is retrograde amnesia for events occurring just
before.
Infantile/child amnesia: the inability as adults to remember
events that occurred in our lives before about 3 years of age.
Due possibly to fact that hippocampus is not fully developed.
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Recall: Direct retrieval of facts or information

Serial Position Effect:
Hardest to recall items in the middle of a list
Primacy effect: easier to remember items first in a list than
items in the middle, because first items are studied the most
Recency effect: easier to remember items last in a list
than items in the middle, because the last items were last
studied
Serial Position Effect
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Graphic: Serial Position Effect
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A Little Demonstration:
Serial Position Effect
See in class!
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A Little Demonstration:
Serial Position Effect
See in class!
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Graphic: Stages of Memory
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Comparison of
Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
1. Large capacity
2. Contains sensory
information
3. Very brief
retention (1/2 sec
for visual; 2 secs
for auditory)
Short Term
1. Limited capacity
2. Acoustically
encoded
3. Brief storage (up
to 30 seconds
w/o rehearsal)
4. Conscious
processing of
information
Long Term
1.Unlimited
capacity
2.Semantically
encoded
3.Storage
presumed
permanent
4.Information highly
organized



Part 2
Encoding Information into Memory
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Types of Processing
Automatic processing: memory processing that occurs
subconsciously and does not require attention.
Example: How many of you can sing the theme song for
Gilligans Island? How many learned it on purpose?
Effortful processing: memory processing that occurs
consciously and requires attention
Example: How many of you can name all of the divisions of
the nervous system? How many learned it on purpose?
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Levels-of-Processing Theory
Levels-of-processing theory: a theory of information
processing in memory that assumes that semantic processing
leads to better long-term memory
Physical memory processing: encoding the word birthday
by the way it is spelt, b i r t h d a y
Acoustic memory processing: encoding the word birthday
by the way it sounds
Semantic memory processing: encoding the word birthday
by its meaning, a day of joy and celebration commemorating
the anniversary of ones birth.
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Factors Affecting Encoding
Encoding specificity principle: the principle that the
environmental cues present at the time information is encoded
into long-term memory serve as the best retrieval cues for the
information.
State-dependent memory: long-term memory retrieval is
best when a persons physiological state at the time of
encoding and retrieval is the same.
Mood-dependent memory: long-term memory retrieval is
best when a persons mood state at the time of encoding and
retrieval is the same.
Mood-congruence effect: long-term memory retrieval is best
for experiences and information that are congruent with a
persons current mood.
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Example: Mood & Memory
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Improving Encoding
Mnemonics: a memory aid
Method of loci: a mnemonic in which sequential pieces of
information are encoded by associating them with sequential
locations in a very familiar room or location.
Peg-word system: a mnemonic in which the items in a list to
be remembered are associated with the sequential items in a
memorized jingle (Every good boy does fine)
Spacing (distributed study) effect: long-term memory is
better when spaced study is used than when massed study
(cramming) is used



Part 3
Retrieving Information from Memory
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Recall: a measure of long-term memory retrieval that
requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no
retrieval cues.
Recognition: a measure of long-term memory retrieval that
only requires the identification of the information in the
presence of retrieval cues.
Relearning: the savings method of measuring long-term
memory retrieval, in which the measure is the amount of time
saved when learning information for the second time.
Measuring Retrieval
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Example:
Recall versus Recognition
Example of Recall:
The process of storing information in
memory is called ______________.
Example of Recognition:
The process of storing information in
memory is called:
a. rehearsal b. deep processing
c. encoding d. retrieval
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Encoding failure theory: a theory that proposes that
forgetting is due to the failure to encode the information into
long-term memory
Forgetting Due to
Encoding Failure?
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A Little Demonstration
See in class!
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Which is the Real Penny?
See in class!
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Storage decay theory: a theory that proposes that forgetting
is due to the decay of physical traces of the information in the
brain; periodically using the information helps to maintain it in
the brain
The Use it or lose it theory!
Forgetting Due to
Decay in Storage?
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Graphic: Forgetting Curve
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Interference theory: a theory that proposes that forgetting is
due to other information in memory interfering
Proactive interference: old information interferes with the
retrieval of newly-stored information
Retroactive Interference: newly-stored information interferes
with the retrieval of previously-stored information
Forgetting Due to
Interference?
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Retroactive vs. Proactive
Interference
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Graph: Effect of Interference
Percent
recalled
dependent on
number of
previous lists
memorized
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Cue-dependent theory: a theory that proposes that
forgetting is due to the unavailability of the retrieval cues
necessary to locate the information in long-term memory.
This is one explanation for why we do not seem to have
many memories from early childhood (ages 3 to 6 or so)

Forgetting Due to
Loss of Cues?



Part 4
Improving Memory
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Knowledge of Results: Feedback allowing you to check your
progress

Recitation: Summarizing aloud while you are learning

Rehearsal: Reviewing information mentally (silently)

Selection: Selecting most important concepts to memorize

Organization: Organizing difficult items into chunks; a type of
reordering
Some Ways to Improve Memory
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Whole Learning: Studying an entire package of
information at once, like a poem

Part Learning: Studying subparts of a larger body of
information (like text chapters)

Progressive Part Learning: Breaking learning task into a
series of short sections

Serial Position Effect: Making most errors while
remembering the middle of the list

Overlearning: Studying is continued beyond bare mastery
More Ways to Improve Memory
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Spaced Practice: Alternating study sessions with brief rest
periods

Massed Practice: Studying for long periods without rest
periods
Lack of sleep decreases retention; sleep aids consolidation
Hunger decreases retention

Yet More Ways to
Improve Memory
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Memory & Sleep
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Mnemonics: Memory tricks; any kind of memory system
or aid
- Using mental pictures
- Making things meaningful
- Making information familiar
- Forming bizarre, unusual or exaggerated mental
associations
A Last Method to Help Memory