Earthquake Response

(Elastic & Inelastic Buildings)

Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA)
Easy to measure because the response of most
instruments is proportional to ground acceleration
Liked by many engineers because it can be
related to the force on a short-period building
BUT it is not a measure of the force on most
buildings
And it is controlled by the high frequency content
in the ground motion (i.e., it is not associated with
a narrow range of frequencies)
0 5 10 15
-500
0
500
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
c
m
/
s
2
)
1994 Northridge Earthquake, Sylmar Hospital Free-field site
NS Component
0 5 10 15
-500
0
500
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
c
m
/
s
2
)
Vertical Component
0 5 10 15
-500
0
500
Time (sec)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
c
m
/
s
2
)
EW Component
F
i l e
:
C
:
\
r
o
s
e
\
c
h
0
9
\
s
y
l m
_
3
c
o
m
p
_
a
c
c
.
d
r
a
w
;D
a
t
e
:
2
0
0
3
-
0
9
-
1
5
;
T
i m
e
:
1
9
:
0
6
:
5
0
P wave arrives before S
wave. S-Trigger time = 3.2
sec, hypocentral distance
between approx. 5*3.2=
16 km and 8*3.2= 26 km
P-motion much higher
frequency than S, and
predominately on vertical
component.
Is the horizontal S-wave
motion polarized?
Peak ground velocity (PGV)

It is sensitive to longer periods than PGA
(making it potentially more predictable using
deterministic models)

BUT it requires digital processing (no longer an
important issue)
Large Recorded Ground Velocities
Peak ground displacement (PGD)

The best parameter for displacement-based
design?

BUT highly sensitive to the low-cut (high-pass)
filter that needs to be applied to most records (in
which case the derived PGD might not represent
the true PGD, unlike PGA, for which the Earth
imposes a natural limit to the frequency content).
What Controls the Level of Shaking?
Magnitude
Directivity
Larger fault, more energy released and over a larger area
Distance from fault
Shaking decays with distance
Local site response (rock or soil)
amplify the shaking
Strongest shaking in rupture direction
Pockets of higher shaking (lens effect)

Earthquake Magnitude
Earthquake magnitude scales originated
because of

the desire for an objective measure of
earthquake size

Technological advances -> seismometers
Modern Seismic Magnitudes

Today seismologists use different seismic waves
to compute magnitudes

These waves generally have lower frequencies
than those used by Richter

These waves are generally recorded at
distances of 1000s of kilometers instead of the
100s of kilometers for the Richter scale
Teleseismic M
S
and M
b


Two commonly used modern magnitude
scales are:
M
S
, Surface-wave magnitude (Rayleigh Wave)
m
b
, Body-wave magnitude (P-wave)
Response spectrum
It is simply a plot of the peak or steady-
state response (displacement, velocity or
acceleration) of a series of oscillators of
varying natural frequency, that are forced
into motion by the same
base vibration or shock. The resulting plot
can then be used to pick off the response
of any linear system, given its natural
frequency of oscillation
Response Spectrum

If the ground moves as per the given accelerogram, what is the
maximum response of a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system (of
given natural period and damping)?

Response may mean any quantity of interest, e.g., deformation,
acceleration

T=2 sec,
Damping =2%
Ground motion time history
Time, sec
a(t)/g

Response Spectrum (contd)


Using a computer, one can calculate the response of
SDOF system with time (time history of response)

Can pick maximum response of this SDOF system (of
given T and damping) from this response time history
See next slide
Time, sec
A(t)/g
Response Spectrum (contd)
Displacement Response
Spectrum for the above time
history
Time, sec
U(t)
U(t)
U(t)
T=0.5 sec
=2%
T=1.0 sec
=2%
T=2.0 sec
=2%
U
m
a
x

T, sec
Response Spectrum (contd)
Repeat this exercise for different values of natural period.

For design, we usually need only the maximum response.

Hence, for future use, plot maximum response versus natural
period (for a given value of damping).

Such a plot of maximum response versus natural period for a given
accelerogram is called response spectrum.
Time, sec
A(t)/g
Response Spectrum (contd)
Ground motion time history
Time History of Deformation (relative displacement of
mass with respect to base) response
Maximum response = 7.47 in.
T=2 sec,
Damping =2%
Time, sec
U(t)
Smooth Response Spectrum
Real spectrum has somewhat irregular shape with
local peaks and valleys

For design purpose, local peaks and valleys should be
ignored

Since natural period cannot be calculated with that
much accuracy.

Hence, smooth response spectrum used for design
purposes

For developing design spectra, one also needs to
consider other issues.
Smooth Response Spectrum (contd)
Acceleration Spectra Velocity Spectra Displacement Spectra
Shown here are typical smooth spectra used in design for different values of
damping (
Period (sec)
Period (sec) Period (sec)
Response Spectrum versus Design Spectrum (contd)
Natural period of a civil engineering structure cannot be
calculated precisely

Design specification should not very sensitive to a small
change in natural period.

Hence, design spectrum is a smooth or average shape
without local peaks and valleys you see in the response
spectrum
Design Spectrum
Since some damage is expected and accepted in the
structure during strong shaking, design spectrum is
developed considering the overstrength, redundancy,
and ductility in the structure.

The site may be prone to shaking from large but distant
earthquakes as well as from medium but nearby
earthquakes: design spectrum may account for these as
well.
See Fig.
Design Spectrum (contd)
Design Spectrum must be accompanied by:

Load factors or permissible stresses that must be used
Different choice of load factors will give different seismic
safety to the structure

Damping to be used in design
Variation in the value of damping used will affect the design
force.

Method of calculation of natural period
Depending on modeling assumptions, one can get different
values of natural period.

Type of detailing for ductility
Design force can be lowered if structure has higher ductility.
Design Spectrum (contd)
1984 code provided slightly different design spectrum for
two methods
Seismic Coefficient Method (static method), and
Response Spectrum Method (dynamic method)

It was confusing to use two different sets of terminology
for two methods.

Present code provides same design spectrum
irrespective of whether static or dynamic method is used.
IS:1893-1984
Design base shear for a building by Seismic Coefficient
Method was calculated as
V
b
= o
o
I|KCW








In a way, one could say that the design spectrum for the
seismic coefficient method in the 1984 code was given by
o
o
I|KC
Natural Period (sec)
C

IS:1893-1984 (contd)
In the Response Spectrum Method, the design spectrum was given
by F
o
I|K(S
a
/g)
Natural Period (sec)
S
a
/
g

=

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

Major Changes in Design Spectrum
Zone Factor (Z) is specified in place of o
o
and F
o
Importance Factor (I) is same
Soil Effect is considered by different shapes of response
spectrum; Soil-Foundation Factor (|) has now been dropped.
Response Reduction Factor (R) used in denominator; earlier
Performance Factor (K) was used in numerator.
For more ductile structures, K was lower.
Now, R will be higher for more ductile structures.
Structure Flexibility Factor (S
a
/g); earlier C or S
a
/g
Soil Effect
Recorded earthquake motions show that response spectrum shape
differs for different type of soil profile at the site
Period (sec)
Fig. from Geotechnical Earthquake
Engineering, by Kramer, 1996
Shape of Design Spectrum
The three curves in Fig. 2 have been drawn based on general trends
of average response spectra shapes.

In recent years, the US codes (UBC, NEHRP and IBC) have
provided more sophistication wherein the shape of design spectrum
varies from area to area depending on the ground motion
characteristics expected.
IS1893:2002
Local soil profile reflected through a different design spectrum
for Rock , Soil
Normalized for Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) of 1.0
Rocky or hard sites,
1 + 15 T 0.00 T 0.10
Sa / g = 2.50 0.10 T 0.40
1.00 / T 0.40 T 4.00

Medium soil sites
1 + 15 T 0.00 T 0.10
Sa / g = 2.50 0.10 T 0.55
1.36 / T 0.55 T 4.00

Soft soil sites
1 + 15 T 0.00 T 0.10
Sa / g = 2.50 0.10 T 0.67
1.67 / T 0.67 T 4.00

Damping
percent
0 2 5 7 10 15 20 25 30
Factors
(new code)
3.2 1.4 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.50
Damping 5%
0
y
0
y
0
y
V
Log
scale
Natural Frequency, f (Log scale)
0
D
0
V
0
A
Displacement
sensitive
Velocity
sensitive
Acceleration
sensitive
General form of spectrum
Logarithmic plot of Deformation Spectra
U
A
Eureka, California earthquake of Dec 21,1954 S 11
o
E
component.

Eureka Quake
Elcentro ,California Earthquake of May 18,1940,N-S component
Ground Acceleration
Number of empirical relations available in literature to correlate
shaking intensity with Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA)

Table on next slide gives some such values.

Notice that the table gives

Average values of PGA; real values may be higher or lower
There is considerable variation even in the average values
by different empirical relations.
Table
Average horizontal peak ground acceleration as a function of earthquake intensity
0.32 0.72 0.52 0.48 0.54 0.314 IX
0.18 0.30 0.23 0.24 0.26 0.146 VIII
0.10 0.13 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.068 VII
0.056 0.053 0.046 0.061 0.064 0.032 VI
0.032 0.022 0.021 0.031 0.032 0.015 V
Murphy
and
OBrien,
1977
Newmann,
1977 (revised
by Murphy
and OBrien,
1977)
Trifunac and
Brady, 1977
(revised by
Murphy and
OBrien,
1977)
Trifunac and
Brady, 1975

Newmann,
1954

Gutenberg
and
Richter,
1956
Acceleration (as a fraction of g)

Empirical Relations
Intensity (MM
Scale)
Ground Acceleration

ZPA stands for Zero Period Acceleration.
Implies max acceleration experienced by a structure having zero
natural period (T=0).
Zero Period Acceleration
An infinitely rigid structure
Has zero natural period (T=0)
Does not deform:
No relative motion between its mass and its base
Mass has same acceleration as of the ground
Hence, ZPA is same as Peak Ground Acceleration

Design Earthquakes
Describing the Earthquake
Ground Motion Time Histories

Ground motion time histories are numerical descriptions of how a certain
ground motion parameter, such as acceleration, varies with time.

They provide a full description of the earthquake motion, unlike response spectra,
as they show duration as well as amplitude and frequency content.

They are usually expressed as plots of the ground motion parameter versus time,
but consist of discrete parameter-time pairs of values.

Idealized time histories are sometimes represented by simple mathematical
functions such as sine waves, but real earthquake motions are far too complex
to be represented mathematically.

There are two general types of time histories:
- Recorded (often referred to as historical records)
- Artificial

Statistically Derived Design Spectra
The general procedure for generating statistically derived spectra is as follows:

Classes of ground motions are selected (based on soil, magnitude, distance, etc.)

Response spectra for a large number of corresponding ground motions are
generated and averaged

Curves are fit to match computed mean spectra

Resulting equations are used to develop a design response spectrum with desired
probability of exceedence

Effect of various factors on spectral values
Soil Conditions
For soft soils, ag remains the same or
decreases relative to firm soil,but
vg and dg increase, generally.

Layers of soft clay, such as the Young
Bay Mud found in the San Francisco
Bay area, can also act as a filter,
and will amplify motion at the period
close to the natural period of the soil
deposit.

Layers of deep, stiff clay can also have
a large effect on site response.

For more information on site effects, see
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
by Kramer.

Effect of various factors on spectral values
Near Fault Motions and Fault Rupture Directivity

For near-fault motions ag increases,
but vg increases more dramatically due to
effect of a long period pulse.

This pulse is generally most severe in the
fault normal direction (as it can cause fling),
but significant displacement also occurs in
the fault parallel direction.

The fault parallel direction usually
has much lower spectral acceleration and
velocity values than the fault normal direction.

Sample waveforms are located in a
previous section of the notes,
Factors Influencing Motion at a Site.

No matter the directivity, however,
the motions very close to the
fault rupture tend to be more severe
than those located at moderate distances.

Somerville et al. have developed a
relationship which converts mean
spectral values generated from
attenuation relationships to either the
fault parallel or fault normal component
of ground motion.

See the shift of the spectrum in the
long period range.

Effect of various factors on spectral values
Near Fault Motions and Fault Rupture Directivity (Cont..)

Effect of various factors on spectral values
Viscous Damping
Friction between and with structural and non-structural elements

Localized yielding due to stress concentrations and residual stresses
under low loading and gross yielding under higher loads

Energy radiation through foundation

Aeroelastic damping

Viscous damping

Analytical modeling errors



Viscous Damping Values for Design

Many codes stipulate 5% viscous damping unless a more properly
substantiated value can be used.

Note that actual damping values for many systems, even at higher
levels of excitation are less than 5%.
Effect of various factors on spectral values
Viscous Damping
Effect of Various Factors on Spectral Values
Modifying the Viscous Damping of Spectra
Newmark and Hall's Method

For each range of the spectrum, the spectral values are multiplied by the ratio
of the response amplification factor for the desired level of damping to the
response amplification factor for the current level of damping.

Consider if we have a median spectrum
at 5% viscous damping and we would
like it at x%.

If the 5% Joyner and Boore
Sv value is 60 cm/sec on the descending
branch, an estimate of the 2% Sv value
is 60x(2.03/1.65) = change 60x1.47
= 88 cm/sec
Role of Ductility
Elasto Plastic Force
Deformation relation
Elasto Plastic system and its
corresponding linear system
Design Values of normalized yield Strength
Construction of Elastic Design Spectrum
Construction of Inelastic Design Spectrum
Response of Elastoplastic system to Elcentro Ground motion
Empirically Derived Design Spectra
Basic Concepts

The complexity of the previous methods, and the limited number of records
available two decades ago, led many investigators to develop empirical
methods for developing design spectrum from estimates of peak or effective
ground motion parameters.
These relationships are based on the
concept that all spectra have a
characteristic shape, which is shown here.
Empirically Derived Design Spectra
Newmark and Hall's Method
N. M. Newmark and W. J. Hall's procedure
for developing elastic design spectra starts
with the peak values of ground acceleration,
velocity, and displacement.

These values are used to generate a baseline
curve that the spectrum will be generated from.

The values of peak ground acceleration and
velocity should be obtained from a
deterministic or probabilistic seismic hazard
analysis

The value of peak ground displacement is a
bit more difficult to obtain due to the lack of
reliable attenuation relationships.

Some empirical functions utilizing the
PGA are available to provide additional
estimates of the peak ground displacement.
A typical baseline curve plotted on
tripartite axes is shown above.
Structural Response Amplification Factors

Structural response amplification factors are then applied to the different
period-dependent regions of the baseline curve
Empirically Derived Design Spectra (Cont..)
Newmark and Hall's Method
Damping
(% critical)
Structural response amplification factors
Median + One Sigma
o
a
o
v
o
d
o
a
o
v
o
d

1 3.21 2.31 1.82 4.38 3.38 2.73
2 2.74 2.03 1.63 3.66 2.92 2.42
3 2.46 1.86 1.52 3.24 2.64 2.24
5 2.12 1.65 1.39 2.71 2.3 2.01
7 1.89 1.51 1.29 2.36 2.08 1.85
10 1.64 1.37 1.2 1.99 1.84 1.69
20 1.17 1.08 1.01 1.26 1.37 1.38
Tripartite Plots:

Newmark and Hall's spectra are plotted on a four-way log plot called a tripartite plot.

This is made possible by the simple relation between spectral acceleration,
velocity, and displacement:
Empirically Derived Design Spectra (Cont..)
Newmark and Hall's Method
Sa/w = Sv = Sdw

A tripartite plot begins as a log-log plot of spectral velocity versus period as shown.
Empirically Derived Design Spectra (Cont..)
Newmark and Hall's Method
Then spectral acceleration and spectral displacement axes are superimposed
on the plot at 45 degree angles
All three types of spectrum (S
a
vs. T, S
v
vs. T, and S
d
vs. T) can be plotted
as a single graph, and three spectral values for a particular period can easily
be determined.

The S
a
, S
v
, and S
d
values for a period of 1 second are shown below.
Empirically Derived Design Spectra (Cont..)
Newmark and Hall's Method
Empirically Derived Design Spectra
Constructing Newmark and Hall Spectra
1. Construct ground motion 'backbone' curve using constant a
gmax
, v
gmax
,
d
gmax
lines. Take lower bound on three curves (solid line on figure)

ELASTIC RESPONSE SPECTRA

A response spectrum is simply a plot of the peak or steady-state
response (displacement, velocity or acceleration) of a series of
oscillators of varying natural frequency, that are forced into motion
by the same base vibration or shock. The resulting plot can then be
used to pick off the response of any linear system, given its natural
frequency of oscillation. One such use is in assessing the peak
response of buildings to earthquakes.


GENERAL INFORMATION
Response spectra can also be used in assessing the response of
linear systems with multiple modes of oscillation (multi-degree of
freedom systems), although they are only accurate for low levels of
damping. Modal analysis is performed to identify the modes, and
the response in that mode can be picked from the response
spectrum.
The science of strong ground motion may use some values from
the ground response spectrum (calculated from recordings of
surface ground motion from seismographs) for correlation with
seismic damage.
If the input used in calculating a response spectrum is steady-state
periodic, then the steady-state result is recorded. Damping must be
present, or else the response will be infinite. For transient input
(such as seismic ground motion), the peak response is reported.
Some level of damping is generally assumed, but a value will be
obtained even with no damping.


GENERAL INFORMATION
. This peak response is then combined to estimate a total response. A
typical combination method is the square root of the sum of the
squares (SRSS) if the modal frequencies are not close.

The result is typically different from that which would be calculated
directly from an input, since phase information is lost in the process
of generating the response spectrum.

The main limitation of response spectra is that they are only universally
applicable for linear systems. Response spectra can be generated
for non-linear systems, but are only applicable to systems with the
same non-linearity, although attempts have been made to develop
non-linear seismic design spectra with wider structural application.
The results of this cannot be directly combined for multi-mode
response.



Uses of Elastic Response Spectra
Elastic design response spectra are extremely useful to structural
engineers. These spectra are the basis for:
Computing design displacements and forces in systems expected
to remain elastic
Developing design forces and displacement systems that respond
in elastically by:
- Modifying elastic spectrum
- Evaluating response of equivalent elastic structure
These elastic spectra can be obtained by several methods, which
are:
Processing of site specific ground motion time histories
Statistical relationships
Empirical relationships
Code stipulations
Uses of Elastic Response Spectra
Elastic spectra can be presented in several formats, depending on
the needs of the engineer and what information is being presented.
Some of the most common formats are:
Spectral acceleration vs. period
Spectral velocity vs. period
Spectral displacement vs. period
Spectral acceleration vs. spectral displacement (capacity design
spectrum)
Tripartite plots (Sa, Sv, and Sd vs. period)
Also, any of the above (except the capacity design spectrum) can
be plotted versus frequency rather than period.
Factors which effect elastic spectra include the damping ratio, site
conditions, and near fault ground motion effects such as rupture
directivity.

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
Response spectra for actual ground motions are quite irregular, as
shown below. Do not use them for design they can be used for
analysis to assess the response to a particular earthquake.







Where site specific ground motions have been compiled, the response
spectra for each record can be averaged. The resulting "mean
spectrum will be smooth. The COE can be used to establish a
spectrum with a desired probability of exceedance.


SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
TYPES OF DESIGN RESPONSE SPECTRA

a. Probability level. Design response spectra
are usually based statistically either on the mean, median (50th
percentile probability level), or the median plus one standard
deviation (84th percentile probability level), of the ground motion
parameters or the records chosen.
Design response spectra used for design of new RCC dams or for
evaluation of the safety and serviceability of existing dams shall be
based on the mean level of the ground motion parameters

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
b. Type of spectrum required. Either a site-specific
or a standard design response spectra shall be used to describe
the design earthquakes.
The type required shall be based on the seismic zone, the proximity
of the seismic source, and the maximum height of the dam.

c. Site-specific design response spectra.
The site-specific design response spectra should be developed
based on earthquake source conditions, propagation path
properties, and local foundation characteristics associated with the
specific site.
This type of design spectra may be established by anchoring a
selected response spectral shape for the site to the estimated peak
ground acceleration, or by estimating
SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DESIGN

a. Site-specific design response spectra.
When site-specific design response spectra are required in
accordance with paragraph 5-5c, two independent design response
spectra shall be developed, one to define the horizontal component
of ground motion, and the second to define the vertical component.

The vertical component of ground motion usually contains much
higher frequency content than the horizontal component, therefore
the spectral shape is quite different than that of the horizontal
component.
SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
B. STANDARD DESIGN RESPONSE SPECTRA.

When it is acceptable to use standard design response spectra to
define the design earthquakes, the horizontal component of ground
motion shall be defined by anchoring the standard design response
spectra for the appropriate damping factor with the scaling factor

The vertical component of ground motion shall utilize the same
standard design response spectrum used for the horizontal
component, but it shall be scaled using the appropriate ratio of the
PGA for the vertical component to the PGA for the horizontal
component
SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
AMPLIFICATION CALCULATIONS

To compute the amplification functions, three different computer
programs were used:
- ProShake [7] and CyberQuake [8] for 1D and
- Aki-Larner SH according to Bard and Gabriel [9] for 2D
calculations. As input motion on the bedrock, time histories
following as closely as possible the shape of the elastic
response spectra of the national application document of Euro code
8 [10] (version ENV-1998-1-1) for
rock and zone 1 were taken. Zone 1 of the Swiss design code
represents the largest part of the highly
populated area in Switzerland. The selected time histories had to
fulfill the following criteria:
SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
- Occurrence in similar tectonic conditions as Switzerland and
- Covering the target response spectra (split into the period ranges
of 0.02-0.2s and 0.2-4s).
Table 1 contains the selected earthquakes. Figures 3 and 4 show
the response spectra of the selected time
histories in comparison to the target spectra.

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
The multi-step code approach for calculating the Seismic Response
Coefficient (C
s
in NEHRP), is essentially a way of constructing a
smoothed average response spectrum that accounts for the
damping and ductility characteristics of the building, as well as the
regional seismicity and underlying soil of the site.
Compare an elastic response spectrum for a Northridge 1994
earthquake motion, with a code design response spectrum
developed with the NEHRP provisions.
The code spectrum is an approximation of an elastic response
spectrum, scaled down by two factors:
It is reduced by the factor of safety used in allowable stress design
to account for the fact to achieve the given yield strength, allowable
stress design must aim at a lower strength. (for this case, F
s
= 1.5)
It is reduced by the R factor to account for damping and ductility.
This reduction creates an inelastic spectrum which accounts for the
effect of ductility in limiting force levels. (for this case, R=6.5)

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
REDISTRIBUTION FOR HEIGHT
The response spectrum concept is based on the notion that the
structure is a single degree of freedom system, but real structures
are not.
In particular, the levels of acceleration are not constant throughout
the structure.

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
Effects of local soil conditions on response spectra

SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
TYPES OF SOIL
SITE-SPECIFIC ELASTIC DESIGN
SPECTRA
At periods above about 0.5 s, spectral amplifications for soil sites
are much higher for soil sites than for rock sites. Deep and soft soil
deposits produce greater proportions of long period motion. Use of
single response spectrum shape for all site conditions is not
appropriate
STATISTICALLY DERIVED RESPONSE
SPECTRA
Elastic design response spectra can be predicted in the same
statistical manner as ground motion parameters such as peak
ground acceleration or velocity. Numerous researchers have
developed attenuation relationships for elastic spectra, which are
listed in the references.
The general procedure for generating statistically derived spectra is
as follows:
Classes of ground motions are selected (based on soil, magnitude,
distance, etc.)
Response spectra for a large number of corresponding ground
motions are generated and averaged
Curves are fit to match computed mean spectra
Resulting equations are used to develop a design response
spectrum with desired probability of exceedance

STATISTICALLY DERIVED RESPONSE
SPECTRA
Attenuation relationships are developed by statistical analyses
performed on a large number of records which were obtained in
compatible geomorphic regions. Most of these relationships are
updated as new strong ground motion data becomes available and
many now include additional parameters such as fault type and site
soil conditions.

The relationships are grouped by region, with note to those which
are applicable only to a particular area, such as the Cascadian
seduction zone. It is important to realize that the relationships are
only as good as the data they were generated from, and therefore
the relations for Western North America are the most reliable
because the database for that area is quite rich. The relationships
for Eastern and Central North America should be used with caution
because the relationships have been calibrated with only a few
events. In any event, more than one relation should be used to
predict the motions at a site.

STATISTICALLY DERIVED RESPONSE
SPECTRA

STATISTICALLY DERIVED RESPONSE
SPECTRA
where
PHA = peak horizontal ground acceleration,
PVA = peak vertical ground acceleration,
PHV = peak horizontal ground velocity,
PVV = peak vertical ground velocity,
Sah = horizontal spectral acceleration, and
Sav = vertical spectral acceleration
Distance definitions: r
rup
= closest distance to the rupture surface,
r
jb
= closest horizontal distance to the vertical projection of the
rupture,
r
hypo
= hypo central distance,
r
seis
= closest distance to the seismogenic rupture zone
EMPIRICALLY DERIVED RESPONSE
SPECTRA
N. M. Newark and W. J. Hall's procedure for developing elastic design
spectra starts with the peak values of ground acceleration, velocity,
and displacement. The values of peak ground acceleration and
velocity should be obtained from a deterministic or probabilistic
seismic hazard analysis.
The value of peak ground displacement is a bit more difficult to obtain
due to the lack of reliable attenuation relationships. A typical
baseline curve plotted on tripartite axes is shown below.
EMPIRICALLY DERIVED RESPONSE
SPECTRA
Use response amplification factors (listed in table on previous page
to determine spectral values in the following period ranges:
Short period (Tn < 0.03 sec) Sa = a
g

Transition
Constant amplified acceleration range (Tn > 0.13 sec) Sa = a
a
a
g

Intermediate period range Sv = a
v
v
g

Long period range Sd = a
d
d
g

Very long period range Sd = d
g
(transition unclear)

EMPIRICALLY DERIVED RESPONSE
SPECTRA
Connect the lower bound response lines.
If desired, plot the spectrum in a different format, such as the one
shown here.

STRUCTURAL RESPONSE AMPLIFICATION FACTORS

Structural response amplification factors are then applied to the
different period-dependent regions of the baseline curve. These
factors differ for acceleration, velocity, and displacement, especially
at low values of damping. The factors decrease rapidly with
increasing damping, especially at small damping values. These
factors are shown in the table below.
Newmark and Hall's structural response amplification factors can also
be used to change the damping value of other spectra, such as
those generated using attenuation relationships. This modification
technique is presented in the viscous damping section of the notes.

EMPIRICALLY DERIVED RESPONSE
SPECTRA








TRIPARTITE PLOTS
Newmark and Hall's spectra are plotted on a four-way log plot
called a tripartite plot. This is made possible by the simple relation
between spectral acceleration, velocity, and displacement:
Sa/w = Sv = Sdw
A tripartite plot begins as a log-log plot of spectral velocity versus
period as shown.


EMPIRICALLY DERIVED RESPONSE
SPECTRA










Then spectral acceleration and spectral displacement axes are
superimposed on the plot at 45 degree angles. All three types of
spectrum (Sa vs. T, Sv vs. T, and Sd vs. T) can be plotted as a single
graph, and three spectral values for a particular period can easily be
determined. The Sa, Sv, and Sd values for a period of 1 second are
shown below.

EMPIRICALLY DERIVED RESPONSE
SPECTRA










EFFECT OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON SPECTRAL VALUES

For soft soils, a
g
remains the same or
decreases relative to firm soil, but v
g

and d
g
increase, generally.
Layers of soft clay, such as the Young
Bay Mud found in the San Francisco
Bay area, can also act as a filter, and
will amplify motion at the period close
to the natural period of the soil deposit.
Layers of deep, stiff clay can also have
a large effect on site response. For
more information on site effects, see
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
by Kramer.
Basic difference between static and dynamic loading
P P(t)
Resistance due to internal elastic
forces of structure



Accelerations producing inertia
forces (inertia forces form a
significant portion of load
equilibrated by the internal elastic
forces of the structure)
Static Dynamic
Characteristics and sources of Typical Dynamic Loadings
(a)
(b)
Periodic Loading:
Non Periodic Loading:
Unbalanced rotating
machine in building
Rotating propeller
at stem of ship
(c)
(d)
Bomb blast
pressure on
building
Earthquake on
water tank
(a) Simple harmonic (b) Complex (c) Impulsive
(d) Long duration
Dynamic Degrees of Freedom
The number of independent displacement
components that must be considered to
represent the effects of all significant
inertia forces of a structure.
Massless
spring
Spring
with
mass
(a) (b) (c)
Inextensible
Spring

1. 2.
Dynamic Degrees of Freedom
Rigid deck
Massless
columns
Dynamic Degrees of Freedom
u
g
Elastic response spectra (many structures can
be idealized as SDOF oscillators)

The natural frequency of the oscillator is determined by
the mass m and the spring stiffness k. The dashpot c
provides the damping.

Idealisation of Structure as SDOF
Mathematical model - SDOF System
Mass element ,m - representing the mass and inertial
characteristic of the structure
Spring element ,k - representing the elastic restoring force
and potential energy capacity of the
structure.
Dashpot, c - representing the frictional characteristics
and energy losses of the structure
Excitation force, P(t) - represents the external force acting on
structure.
P(t)
x
m
k
c
Newtons second law of motion
Force = P(t) = Rate of change of momentum of any mass
=
When mass is not varying with time,

P(t) = m x(t) = mass x acceleration
..
Inertia force
P(t)
x, x
m x
..
DAlemberts Principle: This Principle states that mass develops an
inertia force proportional to its acceleration and opposing it.

..
mg
N
kx
mx
..
The force P(t) includes ,

1) Elastic constraints which opposes displacement

2) Viscous forces which resist velocities

3) External forces which are independently defined

4) Inertia forces which resist accelerations
Equations of motion:

Spring force - f
s
x

Viscous damping force - f
d
x

Inertia Force - f
I
x

External Forces - P(t)
.
..
k
1
f
s
x
c
1
f
D
x
.
Examples
P(t)
x
m
k
c
FBD for mass

st
= w/k
x(t) = displacement measured from
position of static equilibrium
P(t)
1.
2.
f
s
= kx
f
d
= cx
P(t)
.
(1)
(2)
f
I
= m x
..
2
2
;
dx d x
x x
dt dt
= =
( ) mx cx kx P t + + =
( ) mx cx kx P t + + =
P(t)
w
Kx

+ w
0+ cx


mx
..
.
P
e
(t)
x
m
e
k
e
c
e
( )
e e e e
m x c x k x P t + + =
m
e
- equivalent or effective mass

C
e
- equivalent or effective damping coefficient

K
e
- equivalent or effective stiffness

P
e
- equivalent or effective force


Free Vibration
Undamped SDOF System


Damped SDOF systems
Free Vibration of Undamped System



General solution is,
x(t) = A cos pt + B sin pt (or)
x(t) = C sin (pt + )
where,

2
0 x p x + =
2 2
C A B = +
2
k
p
m
| |
=
|
\ .
2
2 natural period
m
T
p k
t
t = = =
1
natural frequency
2
p
f
T t
= = =
p - circular natural frequency of undamped system in Hz.
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
0
0
( ) cos sin
v
x t x pt pt
p
= +
Amplitude of motion
t
x
v
o
2
2
0
0
v
x
p
| |
+
|
\ .
2
T
p
t
=
or
2
2
0
0
( ) sin ( )
v
x t x pt
p
o
| |
= + +
|
\ .
where,
0
0
tan
x
v p
o =
(16)
(17)
x
0
X =initial displacement
V =initial velocity
0
0
ot
Natural frequencies of other SDF systems
p square root of the coefficient of displacement
term divided by coefficient of acceleration

For Simple Pendulum,
p g L =
6 16
1
7
k N
p
m kL
| |
= +
|
\ .
2
k a g
p
m L L
| |
= +
|
\ .
For system considered in (3b) ,
For system considered in (5) ,
For N=0 ,


and for

6
7
o
k
p p
m
= =
, 0 p =
1
16
N kL =
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
1. Apply the static force ,F on the mass in the direction of motion

2. Compute or measure the resulting deflection of the mass ,

Then , k
e
= F /
st
= due to F = W


Determination of Force - Displacement relation, F-

Examples
(a)
Rigid ,massless m
a
L
k
F
a
L
|
.
|

\
|
F
L F
a k
| |
|
\ .
F
2
L F
a k
| |
A =
|
\ .
2
L F
a k
| |
A =
|
\ .
Therefore,

2
e
F a
k k
L
| |
= =
|
A
\ .
or

2
st
L W
a k
o
| |
=
|
\ .
From Equilibrium,
From Compatibility,
(29)
(j)
L/2 L/2
3
48
e
EI
k
L
=
L/2 L/2
3
192
e
EI
k
L
=
L/2 L/2
3
768
7
e
EI
k
L
=
a b
2 2
3
e
EIL
k
a b
=
(k)
(l)
(m)
2R
d
4
3
64
Gd
k
nR
=
(n)
n number of turns
(0)
(p)
(q)
EI
k
L
=
AE
k
L
=
L
L
GJ
k
L
=
I - moment of inertia of cross sectional area
L - Total length
J Torsional constant of cross
section
A Cross sectional area
A, E, I, L
a
m
Natural frequencies of simple MDF systems treated as SDF
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Columns are massless and can move only in the plane of paper
Vertical mode of vibration
2 2
e v
AE AE
k p
L mL
= =
(35)
For pitching or rocking mode
(36)
For Lateral mode
2
3 3
12
2 24 24
e
EI EI AE r
k
L L L L
| |
= = =
|
\ .
r is the radius of gyration of cross section of each column
2
3 3
12
2 24 24
e
EI EI AE r
k
L L L L
| |
= = =
|
\ .
(37)
1 2
0
2 2 3
1
0
6
1
0
6
6
3
p v
a a AE
y ya
L
AE
ay y
L
AE
my y
L
AE
p p
mL

+ =
+ =
+ =
= =
..
..
..
AE/L AE/L
(AE/L)y
(AE/L)y
lateral < axial < pitching
p
p p
Free Vibration of Damped SDOF
Free Vibration of damped SDOF systems
km
c
mp
c

m
k
p
2
2
= =
=
(Dimensionless parameter)
(A)
(38)
where,
2
0
0
2 0
mx cx kx
c k
x x x
m m
x px p x
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
x
m
k
c
Solution of Eq.(A) may be obtained by a function in the form x = e
rt
where r is
a constant to be determined. Substituting this into (A) we obtain,

( )
2 2
2 0
rt
e r pr p + + =
In order for this equation to be valid for all values of t,


( )
2 2
2
1,2
2 0
1
r pr p
r p , ,
+ + =
=
or
Thus and are solutions and, provided r
1
and r
2
are different from one
another, the complete solution is
t r t r
2 1
e e
1 2
1 2
r t r t
x c e c e = +
The constants of integration c
1
and c
2
must be evaluated from the initial
conditions of the motion.
Note that for >1, r
1
and r
2
are real and negative
for <1, r
1
and r
2
are imaginary and
for =1, r
1
= r
2
= -p

Solution depends on whether is smaller than, greater than, or equal to

one.
(Light Damping) :
1 , <
0
0
0
2
1
d
A x
v
B x
p
,
,
=
= +

( ) | |
2
cos sin
1
pt
d d
d
x t e A p t B p t
p p
,
,

= +
=
A and B are related to the initial conditions as follows
(39)
(40)
(41) ( )
2
cos sin
1
pt
o
o d o d
d
v
x t e x p t x p t
p
,
,
,

(
| |
( = + + |
|
(
\ .

In other words, Eqn. 39 can also be written as,
where,
2
2
Damped natural period
1 Damped circular natural frequency
d
d
T
p
p p
t
,
= =
= =
Extremum point ( )

( ) 0
cos( ) 1
d
t
p t
x
o
=
= Point of tangency ( )

T
d
= 2 / p
d

x
n
X
n+1

t
x
2
2
Damped natural period
1 Damped circular natural frequency
d
d
d
T
p
p p
t
,
= =
= =
Motion known as Damped harmonic motion

A system behaving in this manner (i.e., a system for which ) is said to be
Underdamped or Subcritically damped

The behaviour of structure is generally of this type, as the practical range of is
normally < 0.2

The equation shows that damping lowers the natural frequency of the system, but
for values of < 0.2 the reduction is for all practical purpose negligible.

Unless otherwise indicated the term natural frequency will refer to the frequency
of the undamped system
1 , <
,
,
It is an alternative measure of damping and is related to by the
equation
Defined as
1
ln
n
n
x
x
o
+
=
,
2
2 2
1
,
o t t,
,
=

1
ln
n
n N
x
N x
o
+
=
When damping is quite small,
Logarithmic decrement
(43)
(44)
(46)
For small values of damping,
2
n
n
x
x
o t,
A
~ =
(45)
Such system is said to be over damped or super critically damped.
1 , >
i.e., the response equation will be sum of two exponentially decaying
curve
In this case r
1
and r
2
are real negative roots.
( ) ( )
1 2
( )
t t
x t C e C e

= +
(Heavy Damping)
x
o
x

o
t
Such system is said to be critically damped.
1 2
( )
pt pt
x t C e C te

= +
The value of c for which is known as the critical coefficient of
damping
With initial conditions,
( )
0 0
( ) 1
pt
x t x pt v t e

= + + (

1 , =
2 2
cr
C mp km = =
Therefore,
cr
C
C
, =
(47)
(48)
Response to Impulsive Forces
Response to simple Force Pulses

Response to a Step Pulse

Response to a Rectangular Pulse

Response to Half-Sine Pulse

Response to Half-cycle Force Pulses

Response to Step force

Response to Multi-Cycle Force Pulses




Let the duration of force,t
1
be small compared to
the natural period of the system

The effect of the force in this case is equivalent to
an instantaneous velocity change without
corresponding change in displacement

The velocity,V
0
,imparted to the system is
obtained from the impulse-momentum relationship

mV
0
= I = Area under forcing function = P
0
t
1


1 for a rectangular pulse
where , 2 / for a half-sine wave
1 / 2 for a triangular pulse

Therefore, V
0
=

0 1
Pt
m
o
Response to Impulsive Forces
t
P(t)
P
o
t
1
<< T
(50)
(49)
For an undamped system, the maximum response is determined
from as ,




Therefore,



or
0
0 1 0 1
0 1
max
( )
st
x
Pt P kt
V
x pt
p m p mp
k
o
o o = = = =
max
0
1
1
2 2
( )
st
t x
ft
x T
to to = =
(51)
1 0
max
2 ( )
st
x ft x to =
Damping has much less importance in controlling maximum
response of a structure to impulsive load.

The maximum will be reached in a very short time, before
the damping forces can absorb much energy from the
structure.
For this reason only undamped response to Impulsive
loading is considered.


Important: in design of Vehicles such as trucks, automobiles
or traveling cranes
= Static displacement induced by
exciting force at time, t
2
2 2
( )
2
2 ( )
( )
( )
st
st
P t
x px p x
m
x px p x p x t
P t
x t
k

+ + =
+ + =
=
or
where,
( ) P t
k
Response to simple Force Pulses
(52)
(53)
(54)
t
P(t)
General Form of solution:

x(t) = x
homogeneous
+ x
particular
Response to a Step Pulse
For undamped system, x + p
2
x = p
2
(x
st
)
o

where (x
st
)
o
=

x(t) = A cos pt + B sin pt + (x
st
)
o


At t = 0 , x = 0 and v = 0

A = - (x
st
)
o
and B = 0

x(t) = (x
st
)
o
[1 cos pt] = [ 1 cos 2 ]

k
Po
T
t
t
P
o
0
P(t)
(55)
For damped systems it can be shown that:

0
2
( ) ( ) 1 cos sin
1
d d
pt
st
x t x e p t p t
,
,
,

| |
| |
|
| = +
|
|

\ .
\ .
2
1
max
0
1
( )
st
x
e
x
,t
,

= +
Response to a Step Pulse.
(56)
2
1
0
( )
( ) st o
x t
x
,=0

(t / T)

For t t
1
, solution is the same as before,



For t t
1
, we have a condition of free vibration,
and the solution can be obtained by application of Eq.17a as follows:




s
>
( )
2
2
1
( ) sin ( )
i
x
Vi
x t p t t
p
o +
| |
= +
|
\ .
/
tan
i
i V
x
p
o = where,
P(t)
t
P
o

Response to a Rectangular Pulse
(55)
t
1 ( )
( )
0
1 cos pt
i st
x x =
( )
( )
0
1 cos ( ) pt
st
x t x =
1
sin
i
V p pt =
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
2
2sin
1-cos
2
tan tan
2 sin
2sin cos
2 2
2
pt
pt pt
pt pt
pt
pt
o
o
= = =
= hence,
2 2
1
1 1 1
0
( ) (1 cos ) sin ( ) sin ( )
2
st
t
x t pt pt x p t t p
| |
= + +
|
\ .

Response to a Rectangular Pulse
( )
1 1 1
0 1
0
( ) ( ) 2(1 cos ) sin 2 sin sin
2 2 2
st st
t pt t
x t x pt p t x p t
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
(57(a))
(57(b))
(Amplitude of motion)
So,
t
1
/T=1.5
t
1
/T=1 1/6
t
1
/T=2
In the plots, we have implicitly assumed that T constant and t
1
varies;
Results also applicable when t
1
= fixed and T varies
0
0
0 0
1 2 1 2
1
1
2
Response to a Rectangular Pulse
t
1
/T=1/t
t/T
t/T
t/T
t/T
1.68
2
2
2
x
(
t
)
/
(
x
s
t
)
0

x
(
t
)
/
(
x
s
t
)
0

Dynamic response of undamped SDF system to rectangular pulse
force. Static solution is shown by dotted lines
Forced response
Free response
Overall maximum
Response to rectangular pulse force: (a) maximum response
during each of forced vibration and free vibration phases; (b)
shock spectrum
(a)
(b)
This diagram Is known as the response spectrum of the system
for the particular forcing function considered.

Note that with x
max
determined, the maximum spring force
F
max
= k x
max


In fact,

( ) ( )
max max max
0
0 0
st st
F kx x
P
F x
= =
( )
max
0
st
x
x
2
1
0
2
1
3
Impulsive solution, 2 f t
1


f t
1
= t
1
/T
3
Response to a Rectangular Pulse
(58)


P(t) = P
o
sin t, where = / t
1

x + p
2
x = p
2
(x
st
)
o
sin t for t t
1

= 0 for t t
1
for t t
1,


or



for t t
1




or





s
>
s
>
2
0
( )
( ) [sin sin ]
1
st
x
x t t pt
p
p
e
e
e
| |
|
\ .
=

( )
0
2
1 1
1
1
sin sin2
2
1
1
4
( )
x
t
T t
st
t t T
T
t
x t
t
t
| |
|
| | \ .
|
\ .

=
1
1
0 2
2
1
( ) cos ( ) sin
2 2
1
st
p
pt
t
x t x pt
T
p
e
e
| |
|
|
|
| |
\ .
|
|
| |
\ .
|
|
|
\ .
=

1 1
1
2
1
0
cos
1
( ) ( ) sin 2
2
0.25
t t
t t
T T
x t x
st
T T t
T
t
t
| |
|
|
| |
\ .
|
\ .
=

Response to Half-Sine Pulse
P(t)
t
P
O
sin t
t
1

(59)
(60)

Note that in these solutions, t
1
and T enter as a ratio and that similarly, t
appears as the ratio t /T. In other words, f t
1
= t
1
/ T may be interpreted
either as a duration or as a frequency parameter

In the following response histories, t
1
will be presumed to be the same but
the results in a given case are applicable to any combination of t
1
and T
for which t
1
/T has the indicated value

In the derivation of response to a half-sine pulse and in the response
histories, the system is presumed to be initially at rest
Dynamic response of undamped SDF system to half cycle sine
pulse force; static solution is shown by dashed lines
Response to half cycle sine pulse force (a) response maxima during forced
vibration phase; (b) maximum responses during each of forced vibration and
free vibration phases; (c) shock spectrum
Shock spectra for three force pulses of equal magnitude
t
1
t
1
t
1
2tft
1 4tft
1
tft
1
ft
1
For low values of ft
1
(say < 0.2), the maximum value of x
max
or AF is
dependent on the area under the force pulse i.e, Impulsive-sensitive. Limiting
value is governed by Impulse Force Response.

At high values of ft
1
, rate of application of load controls the AF. The rise time
for the rectangular pulse, t
r
, is zero, whereas for the half-sine pulse it is finite.
For all continuous inputs, the high-frequency limit of AF is unity.

The absolute maximum value of the spectrum is relatively insensitive to the
detailed shape of the pulse(2 Vs 1.7), but it is generally larger for pulses with
small rise times (i.e, when the peak value of the force is attained rapidly).

The frequency value ft
1
corresponding to the peak spectral ordinate is also
relatively insensitive to the detailed shape of the pulse. For the particular
inputs investigated, it may be considered to range between ft
1
= 0.5 and 0.8.
* AF=Amplification factor

Response to Half-cycle Force Pulses
On the basis of the spectrum for the ramp pulse presented next, it is
concluded that the AF may be taken as unity when:
ft
r
= 2 (61)

For the pulse of arbitrary shape, t
r
should be interpreted as the horizontal
projection of a straight line extending from the beginning of the pulse to its peak
ordinate with a slope approximately equal to the maximum slope of the pulse.
This can normally be done by inspection.

For a discontinuous pulse, t
r
= 0 and the frequency value satisfying ft
r
= 2 is, as
it should be, infinite. In other words, the high-frequency value of the AF is
always greater than one in this case


Conditions under which response is static:
0
0
sin
( ) ( )
1 2
( ) sin
2
st
st
r r
r r
t pt
x t x
t pt
t T t
x
t t T
t
t
(
| | | |
=
( | |
\ . \ .

(
| |
| |
=
( | |
\ .
\ .





For t t
r





For t t
r

s
>
0
0
sin 1
( ) ( ) 1 sin ( )
( ) 1 1
( ) 1 sin 2 sin 2
2 2
st
r
r r
r
st
r r
pt
x t x p t t
pt pt
t t T t T
x
t T t T
t t
t t
(
= +
(

(

+
(

1 cos
tan
sin
r
r
r
pt
pt
pt

=
Response to Step force
P(t)
P
o

t
t
r

=
+
0
( )
r
r
t t
P
t

0
r
t
P
t
| |
|
\ .
t
r

Differentiating and equating to zero, the peak time is
obtained as:

The high-frequency, right hand limit is defined by the rules given
before
The peak value of the spectrum in this case is twice as large as
for the half-sine pulse, indicating that this peak is controlled by
the periodicity of the forcing function. In this case, the peak
values of the responses induced by the individual half-cycle
pulses are additive
The peak value of the spectrum occurs, as before, for a value
ft
1
=0.6
The characteristics of the spectrum in the left-handed, low-
frequency limit cannot be determined in this case by application
of the impulse-momentum relationship. However, the concepts
may be used, which will be discussed later.
Response to Multi-Cycle Force Pulses
Effect of Full-Cycle Sine Pulse
The absolute maximum value of the spectrum in this case occurs
at a value of, ft
1
=0.5

Where t
1
is the duration of each pulse and the value of the peak is
approximately equal to: x
max
= n (t/2) (x
st
)
o

Effect of n Half-Sine Pulses
(63)
(62)
x(t)
I/mp
x(t)
I/mp
x(t)
2I/mp
I
I
t
1
t
t
Suppose that t
1
= T/2
Effect of first pulse
Effect of second pulse
Combined effect of two pulses
Effect of a sequence of Impulses

For n equal impulses, of successively opposite signs, spaced at
intervals t
1
= T / 2 and x
max
= n I/(mp)

For n equal impulses of the same sign, the above equation holds
when the pulses are spaced at interval t
1
= T

For n unequal impulses spaced at the critical spacings noted
above, x
max
= I
j
/(mp)
(summation over j for 1 to n). Where I
j
is the magnitude of the j
th

impulse

If spacing of impulses are different, the effects are combined
vectorially
Effect of a sequence of Impulses
(64)
(65)
Effect of damping
Reduces the response, and the greater the amount of damping, the
greater the reduction.

The effect is different in different regions of the spectrum.

The greatest reduction is obtained where most needed (i.e., at and
near resonance).

Near resonance, response is very sensitive to variation in (see
Eq.71). Accordingly, the effect of damping must be considered and
the value of must be known accurately in this case.
Resonant Frequency and Amplitude
2
res
max
2
p 1- 2
1
(AF)
2 1- 2
e = ,
=
, ,


(72)
(73)
These equations are valid only for
1
2
, <
1
1
For values of <
2
, <

res
= 0
(A.F.)
max
= 1
(74)
Transmissibility of system
The dynamic force transmitted to the base of the SDOF system is
Substituting x from Eq.(69), we obtain
0
2 2 2 2
P 1 c
F k [sin( t - ) cos( t - )]
k k
(1- ) 4
e
= e o + e o
| + , |
2
c c
2 2
k mp p
e e e
= = , = ,|
Noting that and combining the sine and
cosine terms into a single sine term, we obtain
2 2
2 2 2 2
0
1 4 F(t)
sin( t - )
P
(1- ) 4
+ , |
= e o +
| + , |

| where is the phase angle defined by tan = 2
(76)
(77)
(75)
cx
F kx cx k x
k
(
= + = +
(

The ratio of the amplitudes of the transmitted force and the applied force is
defined as the transmissibility of the system, TR, and is given by
2 2
0
2 2 2 2
0
1 4 F
TR
P
(1- ) 4
+ , |
= =
| + , |

(78)
The variation of TR with and is shown in the following figure. For
the special case of =0, Eq.78 reduces to
2
1
TR
(1- )
=
|
which is the same expression as for the amplification factor x
max
/(x
st
)
0

Transmissibility of system
|
Transmissibility for harmonic excitation

p
| =
TR
Transmissibility of system
Rotating Unbalance
Total mass of machine = M
unbalanced mass = m
eccentricity = e
angular velocity =
2
2
( ) ( sin ) 0
d
M m x m x e t cx kx
dt
e + + + + =
2
sin Mx cx kx me t e e + + =
t
e
M
m
k/2
k/2 c
x
Reciprocating unbalance
2
sin sin 2
e
F me t t
L
e e e
(
= +
(

e - radius of crank shaft
L - length of the connectivity rod
e/L - is small quantity second term can
be neglected
t
e
m
M
L
Structure subjected to a sinusoidally varying force of fixed amplitude for a
series of frequencies. The exciting force may be generated by two masses
rotating about the same axis in opposite direction

For each frequency, determine the amplitude of the resulting steady-state
displacement ( or a quantity which is proportional to x, such as strain in a
member) and plot a frequency response curve (response spectrum)

For negligibly small damping, the natural frequency is the value of f
e
for
which the response is maximum. When damping is not negligible,
determine p =2f from Eq.72. The damping factor , may be determined
as follows:
Determination of Natural frequency and Damping
Steady State Response Curves
Determination of Natural frequency and Damping
Resonant Amplification Method
Half-Power or Bandwidth Method
Duhamels Integral


Determine maximum amplification (A.F)
max
=(x
0
)
max
/ (x
st
)
0


Evaluate from Eq.73 or its simpler version, Eq.71, when is small

Limitations: It may not be possible to apply a sufficiently large P
0
to
measure (x
st
)
0
reliably, and it may not be possible to evaluate (x
st
)
0
reliably by
analytical means.

,
,
(a) Resonant Amplification Method
Determination of Natural frequency and Damping
(b) Half-Power or Bandwidth Method:

In this method is determined from the part of the spectrum near the peak
steps involved are as follows,

1. Determine Peak of curve, (x
0
)
max

2. Draw a horizontal line at a response level of , and
determine the intersection points with the response spectrum.
These points are known as the half-power points of the spectrum
( )
( )
0
max
1/ 2 x
3. Evaluate the bandwidth, defined as
f
f
A
(x
o
)
max
(x
o
)
max
2
1
(x
o
)
st
f
f
f
e
x
o
f A
4.For small amounts of damping, it can be shown that is related to the
bandwidth by the equation

Limitations:
Unless the peaked portion of the spectrum is determine accurately, it
would be impossible to evaluate reliably the damping factor.

As an indication of the frequency control capability required for the exciter
, note that for f = 5cps, and = 0.01, the frequency difference
= 2(0.01)5 = 0.1cps
with the Cal Tech vibrator it is possible to change the frequency to a value
that differs by one tenth of a percent from its previous value.
1
2
f
f
,
A
= (81)
Determination of Natural frequency and Damping
(c) Duhamels Integral
In this approach the forcing function is conceived as being made up of a
series of vertical strips, as shown in the figure, the effect of each strip is
then computed by application of the solution for free vibration, and the
total effect is determined by superposition of the component effects
Other Methods for Evaluating response of SDF Systems
t
P(t)
Ax(t)
t
t
dt
P(t)
t
o
REFERENCES:

[1]-Wikipedia (Response spectrum, general information)
[2]-Design of earthquake resistant building Using site-specific
response spectra,(Site-specific elastic design spectra)
[3]http://peer.Berkeley.Edu/course_modules/eqrd/index.Htm?C2
27top.Htm&227cont.Htm&eqdef/eqdef4.Htm(eqrd,interactive),
Site-specific elastic design spectra.
[4]http://peer.Berkeley.Edu/course_modules/eqrd/index.Htm?C2
27top.Htm&227cont.Htm&eqdef/eqdef4.Htm(eqrd,interactive),
Empirically derived response spectra.
[5] Bakir P. G., Roeck G. D., Degrade G. and Wong K. K. F.,
Site dependent
response spectra and analysis of the characteristics of the strong
ground motion,(Empirically derived response spectra)