PROBLEM SOLVING

MARIA HAFEEZ
NEWELL & SIMON'S THEORY
Newell and Simon emphasized the usefulness of thinking in terms of a problem space that includes all
possible configurations a problem can take.
Objectives & Method
Although Newell & Simon's methods have not been widely adopted, their theory of problem solving has
been influential in determining how psychologists think about human information processing in general
and problem solving in particular.
The theory provides a framework for specifying how I-P characteristics, the structure of the problem, and
different sources of knowledge interact to influence behavior.
They examined how individual subjects tried to structure their problem-solving protocols.

A) THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS
Performance on a problem-solving task is influenced by capacity, storage time, and retrieval time of
STM and LTM--limited STM capacity places a constraint how many sequential operations that can be
carried out mentally.
The time required to store new information in LTM can influence the efficiency of a human problem
solver.


B) THE PROBLEM SPACE
The sequential nature of many problems raises the question of what options are available at each point
in solving the problem. Newell & Simon use the term problem space to refer to choices that the problem
solver evaluates while solving a problem.
There are several sources of information that influence how we construct a problem space. These
include:
(1) The task instructions that give a description of the problem and which may contain helpful
information.
(2) Previous experience with the same task or a similar one.
(3) Previous experience with analogous tasks.
(4) Plans stored in LTM that generalize over a range of tasks.
(5) Information accumulated while solving a problem.

COMPUTER-SIMULATION DEFINITION OF THINKING
This approach assumes that a problem solver solves problems by applying operators to problem states.
An operator is any more that the problem solver deems to be legal, and which can be applied physically
or mentally.
A problem state is a description of the elements in a problem. Applying an operator results in changing
the problem from one state to another.
Thus, problem solving involves three major components:
The problem solver -- the information processing system (human or machine).
The problem -- which is also called the task environment.
The problem representation -- which is synonymous with the problem state.

A) MEANS/ENDS ANALYSIS
An example of computer programmed problem solving is the heuristic of means/end analysis--
specifically General Problem Solver (GPS).
A general procedure for solving transformation problems is to select operators that result in a problem
state that is closer to the goal state.
Solving a problem by setting up sub goals. Solution to each sub goal serves as a means toward the final
end. Useful for large, complex problems (Heuristic). Getting close to the goal is accomplished by
reducing the differences between the current problem state and the goal state.

B) MEMORY AND PROBLEM SOLVING
The computer analogy to problem solving fails to account for the limitations of human problem solving,
specifically capacity limitations of STM and time needed to access LTM.
Thus, in means/ends analysis STM places a constraint on the number of moves that can be evaluated
at any time. If there are four possible moves but STM only holds three the best move might not be the
one evaluated. So people look for a GOOD MOVE, which may not be the BEST MOVE. In fact, Atwood
& Polson (1976) found that people try to solve problem by using means/end heuristics. but it always
does not work well as in water jar problem (Table 12.1), STM capacity seems to place constraint on
number of possible moves that can be evaluated and compared simultaneously.
Also, an old state might appear to be a new state if the problem solver does not remember it--old states
need to be stored in LTM and then accessed as necessary.



Table 12.1 Examples of Problems


A- Analogy
What word completes the analogy?
Merchant: Sell:: Customer: .
Lawyer: Client:: Doctor:.
B- String Problems
Two strings hang from a ceiling but are too far apart to allow a
person to hold one and walk to the other. On the floor are a book of
matches, a screw driver, and a few pieces of cotton. How could the strings
be tied together?
C- Missionaries and cannibals:
Five missionaries and five cannibals who have to cross a river find
a boat, but the boat is so small that it can hold no more than three persons.
If the missionaries on either bank of the river or in the boat are
outnumbered at any time by cannibals, they will be eaten. Find the
simplest schedule of crossings that will allow everyone to cross safely. At
least one person must be in the boat at each crossing.





D- Water Jar
You have an 8- gallon pail and a 5- gallon pail. How could you obtain 2-
gallon s of water?
E- Anagram
Rearrange the letters in each row to make an English word.
RWAET
KEROJ
F- Series Completion
What number or letter continues each series?
1 2 8 3 4 6 5 6 .
A B M C D M .