1

Mobile Radio Propagation

Mobile radio channel is an important factor in
wireless systems.

Wired channels are stationary and
predictable, while radio channels are random
and have complex models.

Modeling of radio channels is done in
statistical fashion based on receiver
measurements.
2
Types of propagation models

Large scale propagation models
To predict the average signal strength at a
given distance from the transmitter
Controlled by signal decay with distance

Small scale or fading models.
To predict the signal strength at close
distance to a particular location
Controlled by multipath and Doppler
effects.

3
Radio signal pattern
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 14
T-R Separation (meters)
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
d

P
o
w
e
r

(
d
B
m
)

4
Measured signal parameters

Electrical Field (Volts/m)
Magnitude E = IEI
Vector
Direction E = xE
x
+ yE
y
+ zE
z
Power (Watts or dBm)

Power is scalar quantity and easier to measure.


5
Relation between Watts and dBm
P (dBm) = 10 log
10
[ P (mW)]


P(mW) P(dBm)
10 10
1 0
10
-1
-10
10
-2
-20
10
-6
-60
6
Physical propagation models
Free Space Propagation
Transmitter/receiver have clear LOS path
Reflection
Wave reaches receiver after reflection off
surfaces larger than wavelength
Diffraction
Wave reaches receiver by bending at sharp
edges (peaks) or curved surfaces (earth).
Scattering
Wave reaches receiver after bouncing off
objects smaller than wavelength (snow, rain).

7
Free Space Propagation
Transmitter and receiver have clear,
unobstructed LOS path between them.








(Courtesy: webbroadband.blogspot.com)


8
Friis transmission equation
P
r
= P
t
G
t
G
r

2

(4t)
2
d
2
L
P
t
= Transmitted Power (W)
P
r
= Received Power (W)
G
t
= Transmitter antenna gain
G
r
= Receiver antenna gain
L = System loss factor
Due to line losses, but not due to propagation
L > 1
9
Antenna Gain
Power Gain of antenna

G = 4tA
e
/
2
,

A
e
is effective aperture area of antenna

Wavelength = c / f (Hz)
= 3 10
8
/ f , meters
10
Relation between Electric field and Power

Received power
P
r
= IE
r
I
2

2
G
r

4t q
Impedance of medium: q = / c

For air or vacuum:
q = (4t 10
-7
) /(8.85 10
-12
)
= 377 O


11
Example
If the received power is P
r
= 7 10
-10
W,
antenna gain G
r
= 2 and transmitting frequency
is 900 MHz, determine the electric field strength
at the receiver.
12
Solution
f = 900 MHz = >

= (3 10
8
) / (900 10
6
) = 0.33 m

From field-power equation:
IE
r
I = [(P
r
q 4t) / (
2
G
r
)]
1/2

= [(7 10
-10
377 4t) / (0.33
2
2)]
1/2

= 0.0039 V/m
13
Example
A transmitter produces 50W of power.
If this power is applied to a unity gain antenna
with 900 MHz carrier frequency, find the received
power at a LOS distance of 100 m from the
antenna. What is the received power at 10 km?
Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
14
Solution

P
r
= P
t
G
t
G
r

2

(4t)
2
d
2
L
P
t
= 50 W, G
t
= 1, G
r
= 1, L = 1, d = 100 m
= (3 10
8
) / (900 10
6
) = 0.33 m
Solving, P
r
= 3.5 10
-6
W
P
r
(10 km) = P
r
(100 m) (100/10000)
2

= 3.5 10
-6
(1/100)
2

= 3.5 10
-10
W
15
Electric Properties of Material Bodies
Fundamental constants
Permittivity c = c
0
c
r
, Farads/m
Permeability =
0

r
,Henries/m
Conductivity o, Siemens/m
Types of materials
Dielectrics allow EM waves to pass
Conductors block EM waves
Metamaterials bend EM waves
16
Reflection at dielectric boundaries


E
r
= I : Reflection coefficient

E
t
= T = 1 + I : Transmission coefficient
E
i
E
i
E
i
E
r
E
t
u
i
u
r

u
i
= u
r
17
Vertical Polarization

E
t
E
i
E
r
u
i u
r

H
i
H
r
c
1
,
1
, o
1
c
2
,
2
, o
2
u
t

I
||
= q
2
sinu
t
- q
1
sinu
i

q
2
sinu
t
+ q
1
sinu
i
18
Horizontal Polarization

E
i
E
r
E
t
u
i u
r

H
i
H
r
c
1
,
1
, o
1
c
2
,
2
, o
2
u
t

I
T
= q
2
sinu
t
- q
1
sinu
i

q
2
sinu
t
+ q
1
sinu
i
19
Reflection from Perfect Conductor (E
T
=0)
Vert. polarization Horiz. polarization
u
i
= u
r
u
i
= u
r

E
i
= E
r
E
i
= - E
r
E
i
E
r
E
t
u
i
u
r

20
Ground Reflection (2-Ray Model)

E
i
u
i u
0

E
LOS
E
r
=E
g
E
TOT
= E
LOS
+E
g
R (receiver)

h
r
h
t
T (transmitter)

d

21
Field Equations
d = several kms
h
t
= 50-100m
E
TOT
= E
LOS
+ E
g

E
TOT
(d) =

For d > 20h
t
h
r
/
Received power P
r
=
2
0 0
4
d
h h d E
r t

t
4
2 2
d
h h G G P
r t r t t
22
Example
A mobile is located 5 km away from a
base station, and uses a vertical /4
monopole antenna with a gain of 2.55dB
to receive cellular radio signals.
The electric field at 1 km from the
transmitter is measured to be 10
-3
V/m.
The carrier frequency used is 900 MHz.
(a) Find the length and gain of the
receiving antenna.
23
Example
A mobile is located 5 km away from a
base station, and uses a vertical /4
monopole antenna with a gain of 2.55dB
to receive cellular radio signals.
The electric field at 1 km from the transmitter
is measured to be 10
-3
V/m.
The carrier frequency used is 900 MHz.
(b) Find the received power at the mobile
using the 2-way ground model assuming the
height of the transmitting antenna is 50 m and
receiving antenna is 1.5 m above the ground.
24
Solution:

d
0
= 1 km
E
0
= 10
-3
V/m
h
t
=
50 m
h
r
= 1.5 m
d = 5 km
25
(a)
f = 900 MHz
= (3 10
8
) / (900 10
6
) = 0.33 m
Length of receiving antenna,
L = / 4 = 0.33/4 = 0.0833 m = 8.33 cm
26
(b)
Gain of antenna = 2.55 dB = > 1.8
E
r
(d) =

= 2 10
-3
1 10
3
2t 50 1.5
(5 10
3
)
2
0.333
= 113.1 10
-6
V/m
2
0 0
4
d
h h d E
r t

t
27
P
r
(d)
= I E
r
I
2

2
G
r

q 4t
= (113.1 10
-6
)
2
(0.333)
2
1.8
377 4t
= 5.4 10
-13
W
= -92.68 dBm
28
Diffraction
Diffraction allows radio signals
to propagate around the curved
surface or propagate behind
obstructions.
Based on Huygens principle of
wave propagation.

29
Knife-edge Diffraction Geometry
(a) T is transmitter and R is receiver,
with an infinite knife-edge obstruction
blocking the line-of-sight path.
h
r
h
obs
h
t
R

T

h

d
1
d
2
|
o

30
Knife-edge Diffraction Geometry
(b) T & R are not the same height...
h
r
h

h
t
R

T

h

d
1
d
2
|
o

31
Knife-edge Diffraction Geometry
...If o and | are small and h<<d
1
and d
2
,
then h & h are virtually identical and
the geometry may be redrawn as in (c).
h
r
h

h
t
R

T

h

d
1
d
2
|
o

32
Knife-edge Diffraction Geometry
(c) Equivalent where the smallest height
(in this case h
r
) is subtracted from all
other heights.
h
t

- h
r
R

T

d
1
d
2
|
o

h
obs
-h
r
33
Assumptions
h << d
1
, d
2

h >>

Excess path length
A ~


o ~
2 1
2 1
2
2
) (
d d
d d h +
2 1
2 1
2
) (
d d
d d h +
34
...Assumptions
h << d
1
, d
2

h >>

Phase difference
| = 2 t A /
= 2 t h
2
(d
1
+ d
2
)
2 d
1
d
2
35
Diffraction Parameter
v =


=

t
u 2
2 1
2 1
) ( 2
d d
d d
h

+
36
Three Cases
Case I: h > 0
Case II: h = 0
Case III: h < 0
37
Case I: h > 0
o and v are positive since h is positive.
h

R

o
T

d
1
d
2
38
Case II: h = 0
o and v equal 0, since h equals 0.
R

T

d
1
d
2
39
Case III: h < 0
o and v are negative, since h is negative.
40
The electric field strength of
the diffracted wave is given by:
E
d
= F(v) E
o


where E
o

is the free space field strength in
the absence of both ground and knife edge.
41
Approximate Value of
Fresnel Integral F(v):
G
d

(dB) = 20 log I F(v) I
42
v Range G
d
(dB)
vs -1 0
-1svs 0 20 log (0.5 0.62 v)
0svs1 20 log (0.5 e
-0.95v

)
1s vs 2.4 20 log (0.4
v>2.4 20 log (0.225 / v)
) ) 1 . 0 38 . 0 ( 1184 . 0
2
v
43
Example
Compute the diffraction loss
between the transmitter and
receiver assuming:
= 1/3 m
d
1
= 1 km
d
2
= 1 km
h = 25 m
44
Solution:
Given = 1/3 m
d
1
= 1 km
d
2
= 1 km
h = 25 m
V =


=


= 2.74
2 1
2 1
) ( 2
d d
d d
h

+
) 1000 )( 1000 )( 3 . 0 (
) 1000 1000 ( 2
25
+
45
Using the table,
G
d
(dB) = 20 log (0.225/2.74)
= -22 dB
Loss = 22 dB
46
Scattering
When a radio wave impinges
on a rough surface, the
reflected energy is spread out
or diffused in all directions.
Ex., lampposts and foliage.
The scattered field increases
the strength of the signal at
the receiver.
47
Radar Cross Section (RCS) Model
RCS (Radar Cross Section) =
Power density of scattered wave
in direction of receiver
Power density of radio wave incident
on the scattering object
48
Radar Cross Section (RCS) Model
P
R
= P
T
G
T

2
RCS
(4t)
3
d
T
2
d
R
2

Where,
P
T
= Transmitted Power
G
T
= Gain of Transmitting antenna
d
T
= Distance of scattering object
from Transmitter
d
R
= Distance of scattering object
from Receiver
49
Practical Link Budget

Most radio propagation models
are derived using a combination
of analytical and empirical
models.
Empirical approach is based on
fitting curves or analytical
expressions that recreate a set
of measured data.
50
...Practical Link Budget
Advantages of empirical models;

Takes into account all propagation
factors, both known and unknown.

Disadvantages:
New models need to be measured for
different environment or frequency.
51
T d
0
R

P
T
P
R
(d
0
) P
R
(d)
Log-Distance Path Model

Over many years, some classical
propagation models have been
developed, which are used to predict
large-scale coverage for mobile
communication system design.
52
...Log-Distance Path Model

Path loss at d
0
= P
T
/P(d
0
) = K(d
0
)
n
= PL(d
0
)

Path loss at d = P
T
/P(d) = K(d)
n
= PL(d)

PL(d) / PL(d
0
) = (d/d
0
)
n


PL(d) [dB] = PL(d
0
) [dB] + 10n log
10
(d/d
0
)
53
Received Power in Log-distance model
P
R
(d) [dbm] = P
t
[dbm] PL(d) [db]
n -> path loss exponent
d
0
-> reference distance close to transmitter
Environment n
Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 3.5
LOS in building 1.6 1.8
54
Log-Normal Shadowing

Log-distance path loss normal gives
only the average value of path loss.
Surrounding environment may be
vastly different at two locations
having the same T R separation d.

55
Log-Normal Shadowing
More accurate model includes a random
variable to account for change in
environment.
PL(d) [db] = PL(d) + X
o
= PL(d
0
) + 10n log (d / d
0
) + X
o

X
o
-> Zero mean Gaussian
random variable (dB)
o -> Standard deviation (dB)
56
Received Power in
Log-Normal Shadowing Model

P
R
(d) [dbm] = P
T
[dbm] PL(d) [db]
Values of n and o are computed from
measured data.
Linear regression method which
minimizes the difference between
measured and estimated path
Estimated over a wide range of
measurement locations and T R
separations.
57
...Received Power in
Log-Normal Shadowing Model
Probability [ P
R
(d) > ] =

Probability [ P
R
(d) < ] =
(

o
) (d P
Q
R
(

o
) (d P
Q
R
58
e
x
2
/ 2
z
x
Calculation of Q Function
Q(z) = Q function =
Q(-z) = 1- Q(z)
Q(0) = 1/ 2
Q(z) obtained from Appendix F,
Table F.1, page 647
dx e
x
z
x
}

2
2
2
1
t
59
Calculation of Q Function
60
Example
Four received power measurements
were taken at the distances of
100m, 200m, 1 km and 3 km from a
transmitter. These measured values
are given in the following table.
The path loss equation model for other
measurements follows log normal
shadowing model where
d
0
= 100 m.
61
Example
A. Find the minimum mean square error
(MMSE) estimate for the path loss
exponent n.
B. Calculate the standard deviation
about the mean value.
C. Estimate the received power at
d = 2 km using the resulting model.
D. Predict the likelihood that the received
signal at 2 km will be greater than
60 dBm.
62
Let P
i
be the average received power
at distance d
i

P
i
(d) = P
i
(d
0
) 10n log (d

/100)
d = d
0
= 100m = > P
0
= 0 dBm
Solution:
T-R distance Measured Power
100 m 0 dBm
200 m - 20 dBm
1 km - 35 dBm
3 km - 70 dBm
63
A.
d
1
= 200 m, P
1
= -3n,
d
2
= 1 km, P
3
= -10n,
d
3
= 3 km, P
4
= -14.77n

Mean square error J = E (P P
i
)
2

= (0 0)
2
+ [-20 (-3n)]
2

+ [-35 (-10n)]

2
+ [-70 (-14.77n)]
2

= 6525 2887.8n + 327.153n
2
Minimum value = > dJ(n) / dn
= 654.306n 2887.8 = 0 n = 4.4


64
B.
Variance o
2
= J / 4 = ( P P
i
)
2
/ 4
= (0 + 0) + (-20 +13.2)
2
+ (-35 + 44)
2
+ (-70 + 64.988)
2

4
= 152.36 / 4 = 38.09
o = 6.17 dB
65
C.
P
i
(d = 2 km)
= 0 10(4.4) log (2000/100)
= -57.24 dBm

66
D.
Probability that the received signal
will be greater than 60 dBm is:
_____
P
R
= [P
R
(d) > -60 dBm] = Q [(- P
R
(d)) / o ]
= Q [(-60 + 57.24) / 6.17 ]
= Q [- 0.4473]
= 1 Q [0.4473]
= 1 0.326
= 0.674 = > 67.4%
67
Area A
% of Coverage Area
Given a circular
coverage area
of radius R...
In the area A,
the received power
P
R
>
The area A is
defined as
U()
r
R
68
Calculation of Coverage Area U()
U () = (1 / t R
2

)

Prob [P
R
(R) > ] dA
_____
Where Prob [P
R
(R) > ] = Q [ - P
R
(R) / o ]

69
Final Equation for U()





The error function erf(z) =


) 2 ( 2 1
2
0
2
z Q
e
z
x
=
}

t
2
log 10
2
) log( 10 ) (
:
))]
1
( 1 ( ) ( 1 [
2
1
) (
0
0
) 2 1 (
2
o
o

e n
b
d
R
n d PL P
a
where
b
ab
erf e a erf U
t
b
ab
=
+ +
=

+ =

70
Alternate method: Use Fig. 4.18 (p 143)


71
Example
For the previous problem,
predict the percentage of area
with a 2 km radius cell that
receives signals greater than
60 dBm.
72
Solution
From solution to previous example,

Prob [P
R
(R) > ] = 0.674
=>(o / n) = 6.17 / 4.4
= 1.402

From Figure 4.18,
Fraction of total area = 0.92 => 92%
73
Other Propagation Models
Outdoor propagation models
Longley Rice model:
point-to-point communication systems
(40MHz100MHz)
Okumaras model:
widely used in urban areas
(150 MHz 300 MHz)
Hata model:
graphical path loss
(150 MHz 1500 MHz)
74
Other Propagation Models
Indoor propagation models
Log-distance path loss
model
Ericsson multiple breakdown
model