IST 228\Ch1\Internetworking 1

Chapter 1: Internetworking
Internetworking Basics
Network segmentation
How bridges, switches, and routers are
used to physically segment a network
How routers are used to create
internetwork
OSI model

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Internetworking Models
Most networks are designed as a stack of
layers, each one built upon the one below
it. Why?



Layer 3
Layer 2
Layer 1
Layer 3
Layer 2
Layer 1
Physical Medium
Layer 3 protocol
Layer 2 protocol
Layer 1 protocol
Layer 2/3 interface
Layer 1/2 interface
Host 1 Host 2
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Each layer provides services to the higher
levels.
Each layer behaves as a black box.
Layer n on one machine talks to layer n on
another machines.
The corresponding layer in the layered
structure are called peers.
The communication between peers must
follow certain rules, known as protocol.
No data are directly transferred between
layers. Actual communication is through a
physical medium below layer 1.

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An Analogy
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Urdu & English
Chinese & French
Professor B
Translator
Secretary
use fax
use Dutch
Secretary
Translator
Professor A
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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Provides user interface
Initiates services
Transfer data into standard format
before transmission


Keeps data different applications data
separate
Control the data exchange


End-to-end data error free data
transmission


Logical addressing for data packets
Routing and error handling


Moves bits between devices
Specifies voltages, cables, and cables


NIC software function
How data in packaged
Error detection

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Reasons for Layering
Simplifies the network model
Enables programmers to specialize in a
particular level or layer of the networking
model
Provides design modularity
Encourages interoperability
Allows for standardized interfaces to be
produced by networking vendors
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The Application Layer (Layer 7)
The layer where users communicate to the computer
Contains protocols and utilities that provides services to
network applications
(True/False) MsWord, Eudora Mail, Netscape are in the
application layer.
Eudora (application) uses SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
(protocol).
E-mail:
Message formats such as RFC 822
SMTP, POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3), IMAP (Internet
Message Access Protocol)
WWW:
HTML (The HyperText Markup Language), XML (eXtensible
Markup Language), XSL (eXtensible Style Language)
HTTP (The HyperText Transfer Protocol)


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The Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
The presentation layer prepares the data from
the application layer for transmission over the
network or from the network to the application
layer.
Include protocols specifying how to represent
data (MPEG, JPEG, PIC, WAV)
Responsible for data translation, formatting,
encryption, compression.
We need these services because different
computers use different internal representation
for data (integers and characters)

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The Session Layer (Layer 5)
Enables two applications on the network to have
an ongoing conversation
Provide following services
Communication setup and teardown
Control for data exchange
Data synchronization definition
Failure recovery
Examples:
Structured Query Language (SQL)
X Windows
AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP)
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The Transport Layer (Layer 4)
Provides
end-to-end error free data transport services
establish a logical connection
data segmentation into maximum transmission unit
size
messaging service for session layer
Protocols in this layer can be
connection-oriented : require an acknowledgment of
the receipt of data packets.
connectionless : do not require an acknowledgment of
the receipt of data packets.

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Connection-oriented protocols:
sender
receiver
Synchronize
Negotiate connection
Connection Establish
Synchronize
Acknowledge
Data Transfer
Virtual Circuit
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sender
receiver
Buffer full
GO
Flow Control
The segments delivered back to the sender upon their
reception
Any segment not acknowledged are retransmitted.
Segments are sequence back into their proper order upon
arrival at their destination
Manageable data flow is maintained in order to avoid
congestion
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Windowing: The quantity of data segment
(in bytes) is sent without receiving an
acknowledgment (ack) is called a window.
sender receiver
receive 1
ack. 2
send 1
send 2
receive 2
ack. 3
send 3
sender receiver
send 1
send 2
ack. 4
send 3
send 4
Window
size of 1
Window
size of 3
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Acknowledgments:
sender receiver
send 1
send 2
ack. 4
send 3
send 4
send 5
send 6
ack. 5
send 5
Connection lost!
ack. 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Positive Acknowledgment
with retransmission
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The Network Layer (Layer 3)
Provides services
to manage devices addressing
to tracks the location of devices on the
network
to determine the best way to move data on
the network
The network layer must transport traffic
between devices that are not directly
connected.
Routers are specified at this layer.

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The Data Link (Layer 2)
Services
Identification of the source and destination nodes via
their physical address (Media Access Control (MAC)
address)
Definition of how data is packaged for transport as
frames
Error detection
Flow control of information sent across the link
Has two sublayers:
Media Access Control (MAC) 802.3
Logical Link Control (LLC) 802.2
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The Physical Layer (Layer 1)
This layer communicates directly with the
various types of actual communication
media
Services
definition of the physical characteristics of the
network hardware, including cable and
connector
Encoding
Transmission of signals on the wire

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Example:
568B twisted pair wiring scheme
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Layer 1 Network Devices: Repeaters
The number of nodes on a network and the length of
cable used influence the quality of communication on the
network
Attenuation
Natural degradation of a transmitted signal over distance
Repeaters work against attenuation by repeating signals
that they receive on a network
Why are repeaters Layer 1 devices?
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Layer 1 Network Devices: Hubs
Generic connection device used to tie several
networking cables together to create a link
between different stations on a network

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Hubs that are plugged into electric power are
called active hubs
A hub that merely connects different cables
on a network and provides no signal
regeneration is called a passive hub and is
not a repeater
Hub is a generic term applied to many
different network-connection devices
If a hub in some way segments or subdivides
the traffic on a network, it is an intelligent, or
switching, hub
For the purpose of the CCNS exam, the term
hubby itselfis a device that does not
segment the network

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Network Segmentation
Segmentation
Process of breaking a network into smaller broadcast or
collision domains
Ethernet network, which are characterized by IEEE
802.3 standard, define the use of a Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) access method
Backoff algorithm : Mathematical calculation
performed by computers after a collision occurs on a
CSMA/CD network
Backoff period : Random time interval used after a
collision has been detected on an Ethernet network

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Network Segmentation via Bridges
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Layer 2 Devices: Bridges
Operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI
model
Filters traffic between network segments
by examining the destination MAC address
Based on this destination MAC address, the
bridge either forwards or discards the frame
When a client sends a broadcast frame to
the entire network, the bridge will always
forward the frame

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Transparent Bridges : Also called learning
bridges because they build a table of MAC
addresses as they receive frames
This means that they learn which addresses
are on which segments
Ethernet networks mainly use transparent
bridges
Source-routing bridges : Rely on the
source of the frame transmission to
provide the routing information
Usually employed by Token Ring networks
Translation bridges : Can connect
networks with different architectures


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Layer 2 Devices: Switches
Increase network performance by reducing the
number of packets transmitted to the rest of the
network
Like bridges, operate at the Data Link layer of
the OSI model
In an Ethernet network, computers are usually
connected directly to a switch
Virtual circuit
Private connections between two points created by a
switch that allows the two points to use the entire
available bandwidth between those two points without
contention