Introduction

Angle modulation is the process by

which the angle (frequency or phase)
of the carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of modulating or message
signal.
Contd
classified into two types such as
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)

Used for :
Commercial radio broadcasting
Television sound transmission
Two way mobile radio
Cellular radio
Microwave and satellite communication system
Contd
Advantages over AM:
Freedom from interference: all natural and external
noise consist of amplitude variations, thus receiver
usually cannot distinguish between amplitude of
noise or desired signal. AM is noisy than FM.
Operate in very high frequency band (VHF): 88MHz-
108MHz
Can transmit musical programs with higher degree
of fidelity.
FREQUENCY MODULATION
PRINCIPLES
In FM, the carrier amplitude remains
constant, the carrier frequency varies
with the amplitude of modulating
signal.
The amount of change in carrier
frequency produced by the modulating
signal is known as frequency
deviation.

PHASE MODULATION(PM)
The process by which changing the phase of
carrier signal in accordance with the
instantaneous of message signal. The amplitude
remains constant after the modulation process.
Mathematical analysis:
Let message signal:


And carrier signal:


( ) t V t
m m m
= v cos =
( ) ] cos[ u = v + = t V t
c c c
PM (contd)
Where = phase angle of carrier signal. It is
changed in accordance with the amplitude of the
message signal;
i.e.

After phase modulation the instantaneous voltage
will be

or


Where m
p
= Modulation index of phase modulation
K is a constant and called deviation sensitivities of
the phase

t KV t KV
m m m
e u cos ) ( = =
) t cos m t cos( V ) t ( v
) t cos KV t cos( V ) t ( v
m p C C pm
m m C C pm
e + e =
e + e =
u
FREQUENCY MODULATION
(FM)
A process where the frequency of the
carrier wave varies with the magnitude
variations of the modulating or audio
signal.
The amplitude of the carrier wave is
kept constant.
PM & FM
FM
Carrier
Modulating
Signal
FM
signal
FM(contd)
Mathematical analysis:
Let message signal:


And carrier signal:
( ) t V t
m m m
= v cos =
( ) ] cos[ u = v + = t V t
c c c
FM (contd)
During the process of frequency modulations the
frequency of carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
message signal.Therefore the frequency of
carrier after modulation is written as



To find the instantaneous phase angle of modulated signal,
integrate equation above w.r.t. t





( ) t cos V K t v K
m m 1 C m 1 c i
e + e = + e = e
( ) t sin
V K
t dt t cos V K dt
m
m
m 1
C m m 1 C i i
e
e
+ e = e + e = e = |
} }
FM(contd)
Thus, we get the FM wave as:




Where modulation index for FM is
given by

) t sin
V K
t cos( V cos Vc ) t ( v
m
m
m 1
C C 1 FM
e
e
+ e = | =
) sin cos( ) ( t m t V t v
m f C C FM
e e + =
m
m 1
f
V K
m
e
=
FM(contd)
Therefore:




K1 deviation sensitivities Hz/V
m
f
m
f
f
m
V K f
A
=
= A ;
1
Equations for Phase- and Frequency-Modulated Carriers
Tomasi
Electronic Communications Systems, 5e
Copyright 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Example 1 (FM)
Determine the peak frequency
deviation (f) and modulation index
(m) for an FM modulator with a
deviation sensitivity K
1
= 5 kHz/V and
a modulating signal,
) t 2000 2 cos( 2 ) t ( v
m
t =
Example 2 (PM)
Determine the peak phase deviation
(m) for a PM modulator with a
deviation sensitivity K = 2.5 rad/V
and a modulating signal,
) t 2000 2 cos( 2 ) t ( v
m
t =
FM&PM (Bessel
function)
Thus, for general equation:


) cos cos( ) ( t m t V t v
m f C C FM
e e + =
|
.
|

\
|
t
+ | + o = | + o

=
2
n
n cos ) m ( J ) cos m cos(
n
n

=
|
.
|

\
|
t
+ e + e =
n
m c n C
2
n
t n t cos ) m ( J V ) t ( m
Bessel function
( )
| |
| | )...} ( ... ) 2 ( cos ) (
) 2 ( cos ) (
2
) ( cos ) (
2
) ( cos ) ( cos ) ( {
2
2 1
1 0
f n m C f
m C f m C f
m C f C f C FM
m J t m J
t m J t m J
t m J t m J V t v
+ +
+ +
(

+ + + =
e e
e e
t
e e
t
e e e
B.F. (contd)
It is seen that each pair of side band is
preceded by J coefficients. The order of the
coefficient is denoted by subscript m. The
Bessel function can be written as






N = number of the side frequency
M
f
= modulation index
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
(
(

+
+
+

|
|
.
|

\
|
= ....
! 2 ! 2
2 /
! 1 ! 1
2 /
1
2
4 2
n
m
n
m
n
m
m J
f f
n
f
f n
B.F. (contd)

Bessel Functions of the First Kind, J
n
(m)
for some value of modulation index
Representation of frequency spectrum
Example 3
For an FM modulator with a modulation
index m = 1, a modulating signal v
m
(t) = V
m
sin(21000t), and an unmodulated carrier
v
c
(t) = 10 sin(2500kt). Determine the number
of sets of significant side frequencies and
their amplitudes. Then, draw the
frequency spectrum showing their relative
amplitudes.
Angle Modulation

FM Bandwidth
Power distribution of FM
Generation & Demodulation of FM
Application of FM

FM Bandwidth
Theoretically, the generation and transmission of FM
requires infinite bandwidth. Practically, FM system
have finite bandwidth and they perform well.
The value of modulation index determine the number
of sidebands that have the significant relative
amplitudes
If n is the number of sideband pairs, and line of
frequency spectrum are spaced by fm, thus, the
bandwidth is:


For n1

m fm
nf B 2 =
FM Bandwidth (contd)
Estimation of transmission b/w;
Assume m
f
is large and n is approximate m
f
+
2; thus
B
fm
=2(m
f
+ 2)f
m


=





(1) is called Carsons rule



m
m
f
f
f
) 2 ( 2 +
A
) 1 )........( ( 2
m fm
f f B + A =
Example 4
For an FM modulator with a peak
frequency deviation, f = 10 kHz, a
modulating-signal frequency f
m
= 10 kHz,
V
c
= 10 V and a 500 kHz carrier, determine

Actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel
function table.
Approximate minimum bandwidth using
Carsons rule.
Plot the output frequency spectrum for the
Bessel approximation.
Deviation Ratio (DR)
The worse case modulation index which produces the
widest output frequency spectrum.



Where
f
(max)
= max. peak frequency deviation
f
m(max)
= max. modulating signal frequency




(max)
(max)
m
f
f
DR
A
=
Example 5
Determine the deviation ratio and bandwidth
for the worst-case (widest-bandwidth)
modulation index for an FM broadcast-band
transmitter with a maximum frequency
deviation of 75 kHz and a maximum
modulating-signal frequency of 15 kHz.

Determine the deviation ratio and maximum
bandwidth for an equal modulation index with
only half the peak frequency deviation and
modulating-signal frequency.
FM Power Distribution
As seen in Bessel function table, it shows that
as the sideband relative amplitude increases,
the carrier amplitude,J
0
decreases.

This is because, in FM, the total transmitted
power is always constant and the total
average power is equal to the unmodulated
carrier power, that is the amplitude of the FM
remains constant whether or not it is
modulated.

FM Power Distribution (contd)
In effect, in FM, the total power that is originally
in the carrier is redistributed between all
components of the spectrum, in an amount
determined by the modulation index, m
f
, and the
corresponding Bessel functions.
At certain value of modulation index, the carrier
component goes to zero, where in this condition,
the power is carried by the sidebands only.
Average Power
The average power in unmodulated carrier

The total instantaneous power in the angle modulated
carrier.






The total modulated power
R 2
V
P
2
c
c
=
R 2
V
)] t ( 2 t 2 cos[
2
1
2
1
R
V
P
)] t ( t [ cos
R
V
R
) t ( m
P
2
c
c
2
c
t
c
2
2
c
2
t
=
)
`

u + e + =
u + e = =
R
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
P P P P P
n o
n t
2
) ( 2
..
2
) ( 2
2
) ( 2
2
..
2 2
2
2
1
2
2 1 0
+ + + + = + + + + =
Example 6
For an FM modulator with a modulation
index m = 1, a modulating signal
v
m
(t) = V
m
sin(21000t)
and an unmodulated carrier
v
c
(t) = 10sin(2500kt)
Determine the unmodulated carrier power
for the FM modulator given with a load
resistance, R
L
= 50. Determine also the
total power in the angle-modulated wave.

Quiz
For an FM modulator with modulation index,
m = 2, modulating signal,
v
m
(t) = V
m
cos(22000t)
and an unmodulated carrier,
v
c
(t) = 10 cos(2800kt)
Assume, R
L
=50

a) Determine the number of sets of significant sidebands.
b) Determine their amplitudes.
c) Draw the frequency spectrum showing the relative
amplitudes of the side frequencies.
d) Determine the bandwidth.
e) Determine the total power of the modulated wave.

Generation of FM
Two major FM generation:
i) Direct method:
i) straight forward, requires a VCO whose oscillation frequency has
linear dependence on applied voltage.
ii) Advantage: large frequency deviation
iii) Disadvantage: the carrier frequency tends to drift and must be
stabilized.
iv) Common methods:
i) FM Reactance modulators
ii) Varactor diode modulators
1) Reactance modulator
Generation of FM (contd)
2) Varactor diode modulator
Generation of FM (contd)
Generation of FM
(contd)
ii) Indirect method:
i. Frequency-up conversion.
ii. Two ways:
a. Heterodyne method
b. Multiplication method
iii. One most popular indirect method is the Armstrong
modulator


Wideband Armstrong Modulator
A complete Armstrong modulator is supposed to
provide a 75kHz frequency deviation. It uses a
balanced modulator and 90
o
phase shifter to phase-
modulate a crystal oscillator. Required deviation is
obtained by combination of multipliers and mixing,
raise the signal from
suitable for broadcasting.
Armstrong Modulator
kHz 75 MHz 2 . 90 to Hz 47 . 14 kHz 400
Generation of FM and
PM
2
f
p
k
k
t
2
p
f
k
k t
FM Detection/Demodulation
FM demodulation

is a process of getting back or regenerate
the original modulating signal from the
modulated FM signal.

It can be achieved by converting the
frequency deviation of FM signal to the
variation of equivalent voltage.

The demodulator will produce an output
where its instantaneous amplitude is
proportional to the instantaneous
frequency of the input FM signal.
FM detection (contd)
To detect an FM signal, it is necessary to
have a circuit whose output voltage varies
linearly with the frequency of the input
signal.

The most commonly used demodulator is the
PLL demodulator. Can be use to detect either
NBFM or WBFM.
PLL Demodulator
Phase
detector
VCO
Low pass
filter
Amplifier
FM input
Vc(t)
f
vco

V
0
(t)
f
i

PLL Demodulator
The phase detector produces an average output voltage
that is linear function of the phase difference between the
two input signals. Then low frequency component is pass
through the LPF to get a small dc average voltage to the
amplifier.


After amplification, part of the signal is fed back through
VCO where it results in frequency modulation of the VCO
frequency. When the loop is in lock, the VCO frequency
follows or tracks the incoming frequency.

PLL Demodulator
Let instantaneous freq of FM Input,
f
i
(t)=f
c
+k
1
v
m
(t),
and the VCO output frequency,
f
VCO
(t)=f
0
+ k
2
V
c
(t);
f
0
is the free running frequency.
For the VCO frequency to track the
instantaneous incoming frequency,
f
vco
= f
i
; or ???

PLL Demodulator
f
0
+ k
2
V
c
(t)= f
c
+k
1
v
m
(t), so,




If VCO can be tuned so that f
c
=f
0
, then



Where Vc(t) is also taken as the output
voltage, which therefore is the demodulated
output
) ( ) (
1 0
t v k f f t V
m c c
+
) ( ) (
1
t v k t V
m c

Comparison AM and
FM
The SNR can be increased without increasing
transmitted power about 25dB higher than in AM

Certain forms of interference at the receiver are more
easily to suppressed, as FM receiver has a limiter
which eliminates the amplitude variations and
fluctuations.

The modulation process can take place at a low level
power stage in the transmitter, thus a low modulating
power is needed.

Power content is constant and fixed, and there is no
waste of power transmitted

There are guard bands in FM systems allocated by the
standardization body, which can reduce interference
between the adjacent channels.
Noise in FM
In AM systems, noise easily distorts the
transmitted signal however, in FM systems
any added noise must create a frequency
deviation in order to be perceptible.


Contd
The maximum frequency deviation due to random
noise occurs when the noise is at right angles to the
resultant signal. In the worst case the signal
frequency has been deviated by:

= f
m

This shows that the deviation due to noise increases
as the modulation frequency increases. Since noise
power is the square of the noise voltage, the signal to
noise ratio can significantly degrade.
Noise occurs predominantly at the highest frequencies
within the baseband

FM threshold effect
In FM systems where the signal level is well above noise
received carrier-to-noise ratio and demodulated signal-to-
noise ratio are related by:



= signal-to-noise ratio at output of FM demodulator
= modulation index
= carrier-to-noise ratio at input of FM demodulator

Does not apply when the carrier-to-noise ratio decreases
below a certain point. Below this critical point the signal-
to-noise ratio decreases significantly.

Known as the FM threshold effect

Below the FM threshold point the noise signal (whose
amplitude and phase are randomly varying), may
instantaneously have an amplitude greater than that of the
wanted signal.

When this happens the noise will produce a sudden change in
the phase of the FM demodulator output.




In an audio system this
sudden phase change
makes a "click". In video,
the term "click noise" is
used to describe short
horizontal black and white
lines that appear randomly
over a picture.
Nonlinear Effect in FM
1. Strong nonlinearity; intentionally introduced
in a controlled manner. It is introduced for
particular application e.g. square law modulators,
hard-limiters and frequency multipliers.

2. Weak nonlinearity; introduced because of
imperfections in the communication channel. Such
linearities reduce the useful signal levels.

In next slide, we will examine the effects of weak
nonlinearities on FM signal
Transfer characteric of communication channel is
given by


Where





We know that
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
3
3
2
2 1
t e a t e a t e a t e
i i i o
+ + =
)] ( ) ( cos[ ) ( t t w E t e
c c i
u + =
)) ( ) ( ( cos
)) ( ) ( ( cos )) ( ) ( cos( ) (
3
3
3
2
2
2 1
t t w E a
t t w E a t t w E a t e
c c
c c c c o
u
u u
+ +
+ + + =
4
3 cos cos 3
cos ;
2
cos 2 1
cos
3 2
x x
x
x
x
+
=
+
=
After filtering through bandpass filter, the fm
signal output


Effect of nonlinearities: nonlinear nature of
channel changes the amplitudes of the FM signal
)) ( 3 ) ( 3 2 cos(
4
1
)) ( 2 ) ( 2 2 cos(
2
1
)) ( ) ( ( cos
)) ( ) ( 2 cos( )
4
3
(
2
1
) (
3
1
2
2
2
3
1 1
3
3
t t f c E a
t t f E a t t w E a
t t f E a E a E a t e
c
c c c c
c c c c o
u t
u t u
u t
+ +
+ + +
+ + + + =
)) ( ) ( 2 cos( )
4
3
( ) (
3
1
3
t t f E a E a t e
c c c o
u t + + =
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM
Noise is interference generated by
lightning, motors, automotive ignition
systems, and power line switching that
produces transient signals.
Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage
with high frequencies.
Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and
interfere with it.
Some noise completely obliterates signal
information.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM
FM signals have a constant modulated
carrier amplitude.
FM receivers contain limiter circuits that
deliberately restrict the amplitude of the
received signal.
Any amplitude variations occurring on the
FM signal are effectively clipped by limiter
circuits.
This amplitude clipping does not affect the
information content of the FM signal, since
it is contained solely within the frequency
variations of the carrier.

5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM
Figure 5-11: An FM signal with noise.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM
Preemphasis
Noise can interfere with an FM signal and
particularly with the high-frequency components of
the modulating signal.
Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and
contains a lot of harmonics and other high-
frequency components.
To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique
known as preemphasis is used.
A simple high-pass filter can serve as a
transmitters pre-emphasis circuit.
Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only
high-frequency components.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM
Preemphasis circuit.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM
Preemphasis
A simple low-pass filter can operate as a
deemphasis circuit in a receiver.
A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency
response to its normal flat level.
The combined effect of preemphasis and
deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-noise ratio
for the high-frequency components during
transmission so that they will be stronger and not
masked by noise.
5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM
Deemphasis circuit.
Application of FM
FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies
for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech
(FM broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is
also broadcast using FM. The type of FM used in
broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM
A narrowband form is used for voice
communications in commercial and amateur
radio settings. In two-way radio, narrowband
narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conserve
bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals
into space.
Summary of angle modulation
-what you need to be familiar with
Summary (contd)
Summary (contd)
Bandwidth:
a) Actual minimum bandwidth from
Bessel table:

b) Approximate minimum bandwidth
using Carsons rule:
) ( 2
m
f n B =
) ( 2
m
f f B + A =
Summary (contd)
Multitone modulation (equation in
general):

2 1 m m c i
Kv Kv + + = e e
.... cos 2 cos 2
2 2 1 1
t f t f
c i
e t e t e e A + A + =
...... sin sin
2
2
2
1
1
1
t
f
f
t
f
f
t
C i
e e e |
A
+
A
+ =
Summary (contd)
( )
( )
.. ]......... sin sin cos[
] sin sin cos[
cos
2 2 1 1
2
2
2
1
1
1
t m t m t V
t
f
f
t
f
f
t V t v
V t v
f f C C
C C fm
i C fm
e e e
e e e
|
+ + =
A
+
A
+ =
=
Comparison NBFM&WBFM
WBFM NBFM
Modulation
index
greater than 10 less than 1
Freq deviation 75 kHz 5 kHz
Modulation
frequency
30 Hz- 15 kHZ 3 kHz
Spectrum Infinite no of
sidebands and carrier

Two sidebands and
carrier
Bandwidth 15 x NBFM
2(*fm (max))
2 fm
Noise More suppressed Less suppressed
Application Entertainment &
Broadcasting
Mobile
communication
Advantages
Wideband FM gives significant improvement in the
SNR at the output of the RX which proportional to the
square of modulation index.
Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced
selective fading since amplitude variations are
unimportant and are removed at the receiver using a
limiting circuit.
Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting
interference. (minimizes the effect of noise).
Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient
transmitter power in information.
Angle modulation is capable of handing a greater
dynamic range of modulating signal without distortion
than AM.
Disadvantages
Angle modulation requires a transmission
bandwidth much larger than the message
signal bandwidth.
Angle modulation requires more complex
and expensive circuits than AM.


END OF ANGLE
MODULATION
Exercise 1
Determine the deviation ratio and worst-
case bandwidth for an FM signal with a
maximum frequency deviation 25 kHz and
maximum modulating signal 12.5 kHz.
Exercise 2
For an FM modulator with 40-kHz
frequency deviation and a modulating-
signal frequency 10 kHz, determine the
bandwidth using both Carsons rule and
Bessel table.
Exercise 3
For an FM modulator with an unmodulated
carrier amplitude 20 V, a modulation
index, m = 1, and a load resistance of 10-
ohm, determine the power in the
modulated carrier and each side
frequency, and sketch the power
spectrum for the modulated wave.
Exercise 4
A frequency modulated signal (FM)
has the following expression:


The frequency deviation allowed in
this system is 75 kHz. Calculate the:
Modulation index
Bandwidth required, using Carsons rule

) 10 10 sin 10 400 cos( 38 ) (
3 6
t m t t v
f fm
+ = t t