Er. S.

Ahuja
Asst. Prof. (ME)
MIMIT Malout
Sensors?
Commonly Detectable Phenomenon
Physical Principles How Sensors
Work?
Need for Sensors
Choosing a Sensor
Examples
American National Standards Institute
A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified
measurand



A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a
signal suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical,
mechanical)
Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical
phenomena into an electrical signal
Active element of a sensor is called a transducer
Sensor
Input Signal Output Signal
A device which converts one form of energy to another
When input is a physical quantity and output electrical Sensor
When input is electrical and output a physical quantity Actuator

Actuators
Sensors
Physical
parameter
Electrical
Output
Electrical
Input
Physical
Output
e.g. Piezoelectric:
Force -> voltage
Voltage-> Force

=> Ultrasound!
Microphone, Loud Speaker
The sensors can be classified as active and passive.
A passive sensor has no power supply and all the
energy it delivers to the next stage (the signal
conditioning) is drawn from the measurand.
Passive sensors are also known as self-generating
sensors.
An active sensor is a modulator and can therefore
deliver more energy to the next stage than it draws
from the measurand. If the power supply is dc, the
output is modulated by the measurand, and has
the same frequency. If the supply is ac, the output
is the carrier frequency with sidebands at signal
frequency.
Biological
Chemical
Electric
Electromagnetic
Heat/Temperature
Magnetic
Mechanical motion (displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.)
Optical
Radioactivity
Physical
thermo-electric, thermo-elastic, thermo-magnetic, thermo-optic
photo-electric, photo-elastic, photo-magnetic,
electro-elastic, electro-magnetic
magneto-electric
Chemical
chemical transport, physical transformation, electro-chemical
Biological
biological transformation, physical transformation

Stimulus Quantity
Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave
Velocity
Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)

Electric Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude, phase,
polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity

Magnetic

Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,
Permeability

Optical

Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption

Thermal

Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity

Mechanical Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress,
Pressure, Torque
Amperess Law
A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force
(e.g. galvanometer)

Curie-Weiss Law
There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic materials
exhibit paramagnetic behavior

Faradays Law of Induction
A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an opposing
voltage/current (e.g. transformer)

Photoconductive Effect
When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the resistance of the
material decreases (e.g. photoresistor)
Sensors are pervasive. They are
embedded in our bodies, automobiles,
airplanes, cellular telephones, radios,
chemical plants, industrial plants and
countless other applications.

Without the use of sensors, there would
be no automation !!
Imagine having to manually fill coca cola
bottles
A useful way to classify transducers is on the
basis of the physical property the device is
intended to measure. The important properties
are :
Position
Velocity
Force or Pressure
Temperature

Position transducers are widely used in servomotors,
linear position tables, and other applications where
prices position is important.
Four analog position transducers (potentiometers,
linear variable differential transformers, floats and
resolvers) and two digital position transducers (the
optical encoder and ultrasonic range sensor).

An often-used position sensor is the
potentiometer. The potentiometer is
composed of a resistor and a contact
slider that allows position to be made
proportional to resistance.
There are linear and rotary
potentiometers depending on whether
the displacement to be measured is
linear or angular.
Potentiometers are quite inexpensive,
very rugged, and easy to use.
However, they are not as accurate as
some other position transducers.
The linear variable
differential transformer
(LVDT) is a high-resolution
contact transducers.
It is constructed with three
coils, one primary and two
secondary. A magnetic core
sits within the coils.
If an alternating current is
imposed in the primary coil,
a voltage will be induced
across the secondary coil.
The magnitude of that
voltage is a linear function
of the position of the
magnetic core.


LVDTs come in varying size. A typical limit to travel
is in the range of 750 mm. The resolution of an LVDT
is excellent, easily able to measure displacement
below 0.25 mm. Since this is an analog devices, the
limits of resolution are usually governed by the
resolution of the A/D converter.
It is readily apparent that the LVDT has an
advantage over the potentiometer as a position
measurement device. Since its core does not touch
the coil, there is no mechanical wear that would
result in deterioration of performance over time. On
the other hand, it is a more expensive transducer,
justifiable primarily where very high and repeatable
accuracy is required.



The resolver, is a rotary
transformer. The primary
winding is on the rotor and
the secondary windings on
the stator. The secondary
windings are set 90 degrees
apart. An alternating current
is imposed on the primary
winding. As the shaft is
rotated by the device where
position is being monitored,
the voltages on the
secondary windings will
vary as the sine and cosine
of the angle of the rotor.
The two output voltages can be converted to a binary
count using a resolver-to-digital converter (RDC).
This device combines the circuitry necessary to
interpolate the output voltages into angular positions
and the A/D circuitry required to digitize the result.
The resolver is a non-contact transducer. Unlike the
rotary potentiometer, it will not lose accuracy due to
wear. The high precision of the resolver is usually
limited by the A/D converter, which converts the
analog voltage into a digital count. Typical A/D
converter incorporated in RDCs have 12- to 16-bit
resolution.
An optical encoder is a digital position-
measuring device. It is available in both
linear and rotor construction. Figure shows
the principle of an optical encoder in rotary
form. A slotted disc is rotated in between a
photo emitter/detector pair. The emitter is
typically a light-emitting diode and the
detector is a photosensitive transistor. When
light is incident on the base of the transistor,
current flows from collector to emitter. As
the disc rotates, the light will be
alternatively blocked and allowed to pass. In
the blocked state, the transistor will stop
conducting. The voltage output from the
detector circuit is a saw tooth. This is fed
into a Schmitt trigger, which is a digital
device that converts the saw tooth pattern
into a square wave. The square wave, with
amplitude of five volts, is digital data in a
form that is readable by a digital controller.
It is typical for the detector circuit to output
a high signal when light is blocked and low
signal when a slot is encountered.
Float transducers are the simplest method of
measuring continuous position (height or level) of a
liquid in a tank. Floats are widely used in process
industries in which batches of liquids are feeding
production processes. There are different
implementations of a float; one simple device is
shown. Here a float is attached to a rod that moves
the wiper of a rotary potentiometer

Velocity transducers are used for speed control.
The digital (optical encoder) and
Analog (DC tachometer) velocity transducers.
Since velocity is the positional change with respect to
time, any positional transducer can be used to
measure velocity. If 1 and 2 are two sequential
angular positions of the encoder given in radians,
then



is the instantaneous angular velocity in
radians/sec and t is the increment of time between
sequential position changes.
The basic analog velocity
measurement device is the tachometer,
or generator. This device can be based
on the operating principle of an AC
generator or a DC generator.
DC tachometer consists of an armature
(rotating conductor) mounted on the
shaft of a device whose angular
velocity is to be measured. The stator,
or stationary component of the
tachometer, is a permanent magnet. As
the rotating conductor passes through
the magnetic field, a current is induced
in the conductor, resulting in a
measurable voltage at V .
In an ideal tachometer the relationship between speed
and voltage is linear. Simply put
V
out
/V
in
=K
where K is the tachometer constant. Since the tachometer is an
analog device, A/D conversion is required if digital
feedback is need

Monitor location of various parts in a system
absolute/relative position
angular/relative displacement
proximity
acceleration
Principle of operation
Magnetic, resistive, capacitance, inductive,
eddy current, etc.
Primary Secondary
LVDT Displacement Sensor
Optoisolator
Potentiometer
Stress Internal resistance to external force
Strain displacement and deformation due to
external force
Stress is linearly related to strain for elastic materials

ea = sa /Ey = (T/A)/Ey

Ey : constant, T: external force, A: cross area
Mechanical motion Electricity
R, C, L ea
R/R = K ea
K (gage factor) is ration of relative change in
R to relative change in length=
K=R/R
L/L



Strain gauge is used to measure deflection, stress, pressure, etc.
The resistance of the sensing element changes with applied strain
A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure small changes in the strain gauge resistance
Bimetallic Strip



Application
Thermostat (makes
or breaks electrical
connection with
deflection)
Metal A
Metal B

)] T - (T 1 [ 0 0 | + = L L
Resistance temperature
device (RTD)
(

=
+ =
0
1 1
0
0 0 )] T - (T 1 [
T T
e R R
R R

o
Resistive thermometers
typical devices use platinum wire (such a device is
called a platinum resistance thermometers or PRT)
linear but has poor sensitivity





A typical PRT element A sheathed PRT

Thermistor
Thermocouple: Seeback effect to
transform a temperature difference to a
voltage difference
Resistor
Thermal
Thermistor
exp
2
g
E
R
kT
| |

|
\ .
Thermistors
use materials with a high thermal coefficient of
resistance
sensitive but highly non-linear





A typical disc thermistor A threaded thermistor

Recall, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is:



A: overlapping area of plates (m
2
)
d: distance between the two plates of the capacitor (m)
: permittivity of air or free space 8.85pF/m
dielectric constant
0
c
0 r
A
C
d
c c
=
:
r
c
The following variations can be utilized to make capacitance-based sensors.
Change distance between the parallel electrodes.
Change the overlapping area of the parallel electrodes.
Change the dielectric constant.
Air escape hole
air
Fuel tank
Parallel plate
capacitor
Light sensors are used in
cameras, infrared detectors,
and ambient lighting
applications

Sensor is composed of
photoconductor such as a
photoresistor, photodiode,
or phototransistor
p
n
I
+ V -
Light sensitive variable resistors.
Its resistance depends on the intensity of light incident upon it.
Under dark condition, resistance is quite high (MO: called dark resistance).
Under bright condition, resistance is lowered (few hundred O).
Response time:
When a photoresistor is exposed to light, it takes a few milliseconds, before it
lowers its resistance.
When a photoresistor experiences removal of light, it may take a few seconds
to return to its dark resistance.
Photoresisotrs exhibit a nonlinear characteristics for incident optical illumination
versus the resulting resistance.

Symbol
10 10
log log R P o | =
R
10
1
10
3
10
2

10
1

10
4

10
2

10
3

10
4

Relative illumination (P)
Magnetic Field sensors
are used for power
steering, security, and
current measurements
on transmission lines

Hall voltage is
proportional to
magnetic field

x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
I (protons) +
V
H
-
B
t q n
B I
V
H

=
Ultrasonic sensors are
used for position
measurements
Sound waves emitted are
in the range of 2-13 MHz
Sound Navigation And
Ranging (SONAR)
Radio Dection And
Ranging (RADAR)
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES !!
15 - 20
Photogates are used in
counting applications
(e.g. finding period of
period motion)

Infrared transmitter and
receiver at opposite ends
of the sensor

Time at which light is
broken is recorded
Advanced Mechatronics
Ultrasonic Sensors (Sonic Distance Sensors)
Photo Interrupt
Pressure Sensors
Accelerometers
Hall effect Sensors
Variable Reluctance Sensors

Ultrasonic transducer (piezoelectric transducer)
is device that converts electrical energy into
ultrasound

Upon receiving sound echo (pressure wave)
back from surface, ultrasound transducer will
turn sound waves into electrical energy which
can be measured and displayed

Ultrasound are sound waves above normal
range of human hearing (greater than 20K
hertz).

Since piezoelectric crystal generates voltage when force is
applied to it, same crystal can be used as an ultrasonic detector
Some systems use separate transmitter and receiver components
while others combine both in single piezoelectric transceiver
Alternative methods for creating and detecting ultrasound include
magnetostriction and capacitive actuation.
Pulse
echo
sensor
Transmit-
Receive sensor
Sound is transmitted through propagation of
pressure in air
Speed of sound in air is normally 331 m/sec at
0
o
C and 343 m/sec at 20
o
C for dry air
Digital signal processor embedded in sensor
calculates distance between sensor and object


x = v
sound
. t
Where V
sound
is known, t = 0.5 (time of flight), x
is distance between sensor head and object
Range of sensor varies between 5 cm to 20 m
Sensor is not appropriate for very short
distance measurements
Frequency response (distance measurement
update rate) varies with distance measured
In general, it is about 100 Hz

Piezoelectric crystals have property of changing
size when voltage is applied
Applying alternating current (AC) across them
causes them to oscillate at very high frequencies,
thus producing very high frequency sound
waves.
Ultrasonic sensors work on principle similar to
radar or sonar
Evaluate attributes of target by interpreting echoes from
radio or sound waves respectively

Ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency sound
waves and evaluate echo which is received back by the
sensor

Sensors calculate time interval between sending
signal and receiving echo to determine distance to
object.

Applications
Medical:
Medical ultrasonic transducers (probes) come in variety of
different shapes and sizes for use in making pictures of
different parts of body.
Transducer may be passed over surface of body or inserted
into body opening such as rectum or womans reproductive
organ
Clinicians who perform ultrasound-guided procedures often
use a probe positioning system to hold the ultrasonic
transducer.

Technology can be used for measuring:
Often used in robots for obstacle avoidance
Wind speed and direction (anemometer),
Fullness of tank, and speed through air or water
Measuring amount of liquid in tank, sensor
measures distance to surface of fluid.
Other applications include: burglar alarms, non-
destructive testing, and etc
Uses emitter and detector
photo diode pair
With no obstruction
detector is high
When an object blocks the
light the detector is low

Advantages
Simple to interface
Inexpensive
Reliable
Wide variety of packages
and orientations
Types
Logic (digital 5 volts)
Transistor/diode (analog)
Manufacturers
Fairchild
Honeywell
Encoder wheel for
angular measurements.
Computer mouse with a ball
Detect holes or slots for
positioning of liner slides
Elevators
Detect the location of products
Assembly line
Used to detect pressure of
fluids or gasses.
Technologies (many)
Strain gage
Piezoresistive
Microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS)
Each sensor has a pressure
range that it works in.
Most have analog outputs
that need amplification
Some have built-in
amplifiers for direct
connection into
microcontroller

Differential Pressure
Difference between two or more
pressures introduced as inputs to
the sensing unit
2 input
Absolute/Gage Pressure
Pressure relative to perfect
vacuum pressure or set pressure
(such as pressure at sea level)
1 input

Measure pressure of gas or fluids
Measure altitude
For planes or weather balloons
Measure flow
pressure sensors in conjunction with
the venturi effect to measure flow
Measure depth of water
When measuring liquids, most
sensors are not rated to have unclean
liquids contact the sensor
components. A small amount of air
in the tube right before the sensor
will create a barrier from the liquid.


Used to measure acceleration
Common SI units meters/second2
(m/s2) or popularly in terms of g-
force (1 g is earths gravity)
At rest an acceleration will
measure 1 g in the vertical
direction
They can come in 1, 2 or 3
axis configurations
With 3 axis it gives a vector of the
accelerations direction (after
accounting for gravity)
Because of earths gravity, the
sensor will read 1 to 0 g as
the sensor is rotated from
being vertical to horizontal.
This can be used to measure angle
the of tilt
Each sensor has a range that
it works in.
Most have analog outputs
that need amplification
Some have built-in amplifiers for
direct connection into
microcontroller

Mechanically the accelerometer
behaves as a mass-damper-spring
system
Many use Microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS). Which use very
small cantilever beams with masses on
them
Under the influence of gravity or
acceleration, the proof mass deflects
from its neutral position.
This deflection is measured in an
analog or digital manner
Commonly the capacitance between a
set of fixed beams and a set of beams
attached to the proof mass is
measured.
Integrating piezoresistors in the
springs to detect spring deformation is
another method
Can be used to sense
orientation, vibration and
shocks.
Used in electronics like the
Wii and iPhone for user
input.
Acceleration integrated once
gives velocity, integrated a
second time gives position.
The integration process is not
precise and introduces error into
the velocity and position.
Used to provide a
noncontact means
to detect and
measure a
magnetic field
Named based on
their use of the
Hall Effect,
discovered by
Edwin Hall in
1879

http://farm1.static.flickr.com/62/227729006_fab88c1668.jpg?v=0
Hall Effect Sensor Sensing a Shaft Speed
Presence of magnetic field
deflects electrons flowing
through a conductive
material

As electrons move to one
end of a conductive material,
a potential is developed in
the direction perpendicular
to gross current flow

This potential indicates the
strength of the magnetic
field

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Hall_effect_
A.png
Depiction of the Hall
Effect
IC Engine Electronic Ignition Systems
Used to determine position of cam shaft
Brushless DC Motor Control
Sensors determine position of permanent magnet
rotor
Assembly Lines
Shaft position and velocity sensors
Contactless limit switches
Current Sensing ICs
Electrically isolated alternative to shunt resistors

Linear Hall Effect Sensors
Output is proportional to magnetic field strength
Hall Effect Digital Switches
Presence of field above threshold turns switch on
Presence of field below threshold turns switch off
Hall Effect Digital Latches
North field turns latch on
South field turns latch off
ICs
Analog Devices:
AD22151G from Analog Devices
Allegro MicroSystems, Inc.
Wide range of linear, latching and
switching sensors
Great sampling policy
Many, many more
Packaged units
Honeywell
Many, many more
SIP
Hall Effect
Sensor
Module
Sensors may be affected by temperature
variation. Some sensors incorporate circuitry to
reduce this error.
Sensors may be directional, in which case care
must be taken with respect to orientations of
sensor and magnet
Some Hall Effect sensors detect presence of
ferromagnetic materials, not magnetic fields
Used to measure speed and/or
position of a moving metallic
object
Sense the change of magnetic
reluctance/resistance (analogous
to electrical resistance) near the
sensing element
Require conditioning circuitry
to yield a useful signal (e.g.
LM1815 from National Semi.)
http://www.motionsensors.com/railwithoring2.jpg
Industrial Variable
Reluctance Sensor
A magnet in the sensor creates a magnetic field
As a ferrous object moves by the sensor, the
resulting change in the magnetic flux induces
an emf in the pickup coil


http://www.instronics.com/images/sensoronix/image.ds.drawing.vr.jpg
Variable Reluctance Sensor Construction
Typical Configuration
Shaft velocity sensor for ABS/traction control
Crank and cam shaft position sensors
Sensor Schematic
Installed on CV axle
Emf is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux.
Indictates the ferrous material must be moving for
the sensor to generate a signal.
Output voltage depends on velocity of toothed
wheel
Performance may be reduced at slow speeds