Instrumentation and Sensors

Lecturer: Yiqi Liu ,

South China University of Technology, China
Email: aulyq@scut.edu.cn


Instrumentation and Sensors

Text Book
Dr. Richard S. Figliola, Donald E. Beasley, Theory and Design for
Mechanical Measurements, 5th Edition: Wiley

Further Reading
Ernest O. Doebelin, Measurement Systems Application and Design, 5
th

Edition, McGraw.
Mechanical Measurements, ,,
Edward Carryer, R. Matthew Ohline, Thomas W. Kenny; "Introduction to
Mechatronic Design", Publisher: Prentice Hall, 2011
Research publications / tutorial papers / public domain
Course Outline
Learning Goals
Understand and analyse measurement system behaviour.
Understand and apply statistical measurement theory.
Analyse measurement uncertainty and error.
Understand and apply basic transduction principles and sensing
techniques.
Understand and apply operational amplifiers, Wheatstone Bridge, and
basic signal conditioning techniques
Understand and apply instrumentation techniques, data conversion, and
data acquisition.
Design instrumentation methods and solutions for engineering systems
through analysis of measurement requirements and synthesis of
information.
Learning Goals
How to achieve the learning goals (good grades)
Attendance
Participative learning
Active in project work
Diligent in home work!

1. Introduction and Basic Concepts
Measurement Systems
Transducers & Sensing
Types of Sensors
Experimental Test Plan
Variables
Parameters
Noise and Interference
Calibration
Applications of Measurement Systems
Computer Control
MEASUREMENT SYSTMES

Reference
(Set point)
Measurement Systems
Measurement Act of assigning a specific value to a physical
variable
Physical variable - measured variable or measurand
Roughness, sound, colour, smell, temperature, position,
Measurement questions
Relationship between real value and measured value
Devising a measurement plan to provide information
Using a measurement system to interpret data

General Measurement System
Measurement System Tool used for quantifying the measured
variable
General stages of a measurement system
Sensing & transduction
Signal conditioning
Output
Feedback-control
-Example: Self driving automobile
-Fun: Self driving automobile
Components of Measurement Systems
Transducer A packaged device (sensor, transducer, signal
conditioning)
Sensor selection, placement, and installation are important
Signal conditioning Taking the transducer signal and modifying it
to a desired magnitude
Increasing the magnitude through amplification
Removing portions of signal through filtering
Providing mechanical or optical linkage
E.g., displacement of a sensor converted to rotational displacement of
a pointer
E.g., diameter of thermometer capillary relative to bulb volume
affecting how far the liquid moves
Output stage Indicating or recording the value measured
Readout display, marked scale, computer disk drive
E.g., readout scale on the thermometer
An analogy
The liquid in the bulb acts as the sensor. It
exchanges energy with its surroundings until
the two are in the thermal equilibrium.
The bulbs internal capillary design acts as a
transducer. It transforms thermal energy
into a mechanical energy (displacement).
The diameter of the thermometer capillary
relative to the bulb volume determines how
far up the stem the liquid moves with
increasing temperature. It conditions the
signal by amplifying the liquid displacement.
The liquid displacement in the stem is the
output signal from which we determine
temperature.
Measurement analysis and application
concern what we are going to do with the
output.
Analog Signal Conditioning
Amplification & attenuation
Conversion
Impedance modification
Filtering
Etc.
Digital signal
processing
Data interpretation
Applications
Instrumentation Modules
Instrument
a device that measures and/or regulates physical quantity/process
variables such as flow, temperature, level, or pressure. It often
comprises control systems of processes such as refineries and vehicles.
Instrumentation
the art and science of measurement and control of systems

Analog Signal
Conditioning
Real
World
(Process)
Digital
Processor
Analog-to-
digital
conversion
Sensing
Analog
signal
Conditioned
signal for ADC
Digital
signal
Data
TRANSDUCERS: Sensors and Actuators
Transduction: a process that converts one type of energy to
another. A device that does this is called a transducer.

Transducer: A device that converts a signal from one physical
form to a corresponding signal having a different physical form
6 common physical forms: mechanical, thermal, magnetic, electric,
optical, chemical

Transducers are energy converters or modifiers

Transduction Principles
Physical variables must be sensed and transformed into a form of signal
(energy) that can be easily quantified, based on physical principles:
Resistive transduction: mechanical stress resistance change (strain
gage).
Linear variable differential transformer principle: mechanical
displacement (of iron core) inductance change, hence transformer
output (LVDT transducer).
Transduction Principles
Physical variables must be sensed and transformed into a form of signal
(energy) that can be easily quantified, based on physical principles:
Piezoelectric effect: stress charges (Piezoelectric sensor, the
reverse is piezoelectric actuator).
Transduction Principles
Physical variables must be sensed and transformed into a form of signal
(energy) that can be easily quantified, based on physical principles:
Bernoulli theorem flow measurement (Venturi tube, Pitot tube,
Rotameter).
Thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect: any conductor subjected to a
thermal gradient will generate a voltage. temperature measurement
(thermocouple)
Etc.
Transducers: sensors and actuators
Sensor
A device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus
This is a broader concept that includes the extension of our perception
capabilities to acquire information about physical quantities
an input transducer (i.e., a microphone)
Acquiring knowledge about the environment is one of the most
important tasks for a mobile robot
Taking measurements using sensors (sensing)
Extracting meaningful information (perception)
Actuator: an output transducer (i.e., a loudspeaker)

A narrower definition of sensors
For man-made devices
Sensor information is also transmitted and processed in electrical
form, but through the transport of electrons
Hence man-made sensors are usually connected through electrical
wires rather than nerve fibre.
A sensor is a device that receives a signal or stimulus (vibration,
heat, light, etc.) and responds with an electrical signal.
Stimulus
Refers to quantity, property, or condition being sensed and converted
into electrical signal
Measured Variables (Measurand)
Used interchangeably with stimulus, has the emphasis of the
quantitative specification of sensing
Measured Variables
Distance, displacement, speed, acceleration, jerk
Strain, stress, pressure, flow
Temperature, light, illumination
Dimensions, locations .

Signal Processing and A/D
Sensor signals are usually electrical signals such as current and
voltage
Sensor signal may not be directly useable (too week, too strong), so
Signal Processing required
Sensor signals are usually analogue, not recognizable by computers.
Hence they are converted to digital signals by Analogue-to-Digital
Converter (ADC)
Analogue signal processing vs digital signal processing.
E.g. op-amp, averaging
Eg of multiple samples
ADC converts analog signals (commonly voltage, continuous) into
digital signals (counts, discrete).
Digital signal processing works on digital signals
Is it achieved through hardware or software?
TYPES OF SENSORS
Output signal
Analogue sensors: continuous output signal
Digital sensors: discrete output signal.
Binary sensors: sensor has only two states ON/OFF. E.g. proximity
sensors
Excitation
Self-generating sensors. Convert a physical quantity directly into an
electrical quantity requiring no external power supply.
External powered sensors. Require an external source of energy called
excitation.
Note: self-generating and external powered sensor are termed as
passive and active sensors respectively. But some schools adopt the
reverse classification.

Example. Identify external powered (active) and (self-generating) passive
sensors from the following:
piezoelectric, thermoelectric, thermocouples, potentiometer, strain gages
Types of Sensors
Self-Generating Sensors directly generate an electrical
signal in response to an external stimulus. i.e. the input
energy is converted by the sensor into output energy
without the need for an additional power source.
E.g. Thermocouples and piezoelectric sensors.

External Powered Sensors require external power or
excitation signal, for their operation. i.e. the excitation
signal is modified by the sensor and stimulus to produce
the output signal. External Powered sensors sometimes
are called parametric as their own properties change in
response to the external stimulus
E.g. A thermistor is temperature sensitive resistor, it
does not generate any signal, but by passing an electric
current (excitation signal) through it, its change in
resistance can be measured by detecting the voltage or
current across it.



NTC (negative temperature
coefficient) thermistor, bead
type, insulated wires
Thermocouple plugged to a
multimeter displaying room
temperature in C.
Types of Sensors
Energy exchange with the environment

Passive Sensors: measures ambient environmental energy without
emitting energy into the environment.
E.g. temperature probe, microphones.

Active Sensors: emits energy into the environment, then measure
the environment reaction.
E.g. Ultrasonic sensors, laser rangefinders
Advantages of active sensors
Manage more controlled interactions
Superior performance
Disadvantages of active sensors
Outbound energy may affect the characteristics
Interference between signals from other robots

Types of Sensors
Internal / external sensory information

Proprioceptive sensors: Measure values internal to the robot
E.g., motor speed, internal temperature, battery voltage
Sensors like shaft encoders, gyroscope

Exteroceptive sensors: Acquire information from the robots
environment
E.g., distance measurements, light intensity
Sensors like proximity sensors, range sensors, CCD camera, GPS
Sensor
Classification
EC: Exteroceptive
PC: Proprioceptive
A: Active
P: Passive
EXPERIMENTAL TEST PLAN
Example: fuel usage of a car (distance and fuel consumption)
Different routes, different drivers, weather, road conditions
Information from manufacturer or independent agency
Measurement Test Plan
Parameter design plan
Process variables and parameters
What question trying to answer
What to measure
What variables and parameters will affect results
System and tolerance design plan
Measurement technique, equipment, test procedure
What ways to do measurements
How good the results need to be
Data reduction design plan
Analyze, present, and use data
How to interpret the resulting data
How to use the data to answer the question
How good is the answer

Variables
Variables Entities that influence the test
All known process variables should be evaluated
Independent versus dependent
Independent Can be changed independent of others
Dependent Affected by changes in others
Continuous versus discrete
Continuous Temperature in a room
Discrete Role of dice
Controlled versus extraneous
Controlled Can be held at a constant value or prescribed condition
Extraneous Not or cannot be controlled and affect the value of the
variable measured
E.g., driving style affecting fuel consumption is an extraneous variable.
What other extraneous variables affecting fuel consumption?
Variables
Extraneous variables can
introduce differences in
repeated measurements
E.g., establishing the
boiling point of water
Local barometric
pressure, which is not
controlled.
The pressure acted as an
extraneous variable
adding to the differences
in outcomes between the
test runs.

Parameters
Parameter Functional grouping of variables
E.g., moment of inertia
Control parameter a parameter that has an affect on the
behavior of measured variable
Controlled Value can be maintained
Example: Flow rate of a fan (Q)
Depends on rotational speed (n) and fan diameter (d)
Fan flow coefficient C

is a control parameter for the group of three
variables: C = Q/(nd
3
)
For a fan, d is fixed, therefore controlled
If n is controlled, Q is measured and flow coefficient can be
determined
Parameters will be affected by extraneous variables.
Noise and Interference
Noise Random variation of the value of the measured signal as a
consequence of the variation of the extraneous variables.
Increases data scatter
Interference Uncontrolled influences that change behavior of
the signal or test outcome
Imposes undesirable deterministic trends on measured value
E.g., ac power source, acoustic feedback
Effects of noise and interference on signal
Noise can be handled by statistics.
Measurement plan should be devised to break up interference trends
E.g., barometric pressure affecting boiling point
Pressure did not change in any one test.
The effect can be discerned through several tests over which the
uncontrolled variable changes. This is a form of randomization
Randomization methods minimize or eliminate interference.
Noise and Interference
Effects of noise and interference superimposed on the signal y(t)=2+sin2t
Experimental Test Plan
Random tests
Test results affected by extraneous variables
Random tests to minimize the possibility of extraneous variables
introducing a false trend
Random order to the change in value of independent variable
Repetition Repeated measurements during any single test run or
on a single batch
Help quantify the variation in a measured variable
Replications An independent duplication of a set of
measurements using similar operating conditions
Help quantify variation in a measured variable between tests
Concomitant Methods
Two or more estimates based on different methods


CALIBRATION
Calibration Applying a known input
value to a measurement system to
observe the output
Establish relationship between input
and output
Standard Known value used as a
reference value for calibration
Static calibration Input known value
and record output
Variables do not vary with time or space
Applying a range of inputs and recording
the system output
Derive a calibration curve through curve
fitting techniques, y = f(x)
Ascertain the unknown input value based
the output value that is indicated by the
measurement system
Static calibration curve
Calibration
Dynamic calibration
Dynamic variables are time or space
dependent in both their magnitude
and frequency content.
Dynamic calibration determines the
relationship between an input of
known dynamic behaviour and the
measurement system output.
Applying sinusoidal signal or a step
change
Deviation plot
A cure plots the error or deviation
between a reference or expected
value y and the measured value y,
versus the measured value.
What does the right graph tell?
Calibration curve in the form of a deviation
plot for a temperature sensor
APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Monitoring and diagnosis of machines / plant / process / structure
Quality control and quality management product quality attributes, process
capabilities, six sigma control
ISO 9000 series standard. ISO 9001 is the worlds most established quality framework,
currently being used by around 897,000 organizations in 170 countries worldwide, and
sets the standard not only for quality management systems, but management systems in
general.
Traceability. Documentation as part of companys Standard Operating Procedure
Feedback control
Control of continuous process (chemical plants, drug manufacturing)
Automation of discrete manufacturing processes (cutting, welding, polishing, micro
assembly of cell pellets, etc)
Navigation and control of autonomous systems such as Unmanned Autonomous Systems
(UAS), Rocket, submarines.
Biomedical Engineering
Diagnosis, medical imaging
Imaged-guided surgery
Assistive devices artificial prosthetics
APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Measurement for Control
Feedback-control stage A controller that interprets the
measured signal and makes a decision regarding the control
Process control
Signal that changes the process parameter affects the magnitude of
the sensed variable
E.g., household furnace thermostat
Operator fixes the set point for temperature
Furnace activated as the local temperature changes
Expert system controller Algorithms to determine the optimum
set conditions
Mechatronics Interfacing of mechanical and electrical
components
Microprocessors, controllers and measurements
Closed-Loop Control Sequence
Closed-loop controller
Used to compare the state of a
process
Taking action to reduce
difference of measured and
set condition variables
Difference is the error signal
Controller acts on the error
signal
Adjust the process to keep the
error within a range
Sequence: Sample, compare,
decide, correct

Closed-loop control concept built around a data
acquisition-based programmable controller
Part Loading
Polishing with Force Control Robot Tool Path Generation
Distortion
Compensation
Airfoil Measurement
Polished Airfoil
Automated 3D polishing of distorted High
Pressure Turbine (HPT) airfoils
Video