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Soil Mechanics I

IN304



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Room :228
Phone :0 232 3111585
selim.altun@ege.edu.tr
Office Hours:
9:00am-11:00pm in everyday
Contact Information
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Course Description
This course provides an elementary introduction to
Geotechnical Engineering, and provides the basic
mechanics necessary for the detailed study of
Geotechnical Engineering.
This course aims to provide an understanding of: the
nature of soils as engineering materials; common soil
classification schemes; the importance of water in the
soil and the effects of water movement; methods of
predicting soil settlements
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Student Learning Outcomes
By the end of this course students will be able to:
Recognize the physical and engineering properties of soil
Give an engineering classification of any piece of soil, and
on this basis predict how it will perform as an engineering
material
Understand the principle of effective stress, and be able to
apply this to calculate the stresses causing soil deformation
Calculate quantities of water flowing through the ground,
and understand the effects that water flow has on the soil
Calculate the settlements, and rates of settlement, under
structures of various shapes and sizes
Explain the advantages and limitations of the different
methods of settlement calculation

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Lecture Outline
1. Soil Formations (Phase Relationship)
2. Physical Properties
3. Soil Classification
4. Soil Structure (Clay Minerals, etc.)
5. Water in Soil (Permeability, Darcy Law, Two
Dimensional Flow, etc)
6. Soil Compaction
7. Stress Distribution in Soil
8. Consolidation and prediction of settlement
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Suggested Textbooks
Craig, R. F. (2004). Soil Mechanics, 7
th
edition, Taylor &
Francis.
Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4
th

edition, PWS Publishing Company.
Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to
Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice Hall.
Coduto, D.P., (1999). Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and
Practices, Prentice Hall, 1999.
Uzuner, B.A. (2001). zml Problemlerle Zemin Mekanii,
Teknik Yaynevi. (In Turkish)
zaydn, K. (2002). Zemin Mekanii, Birsen Yaynevi. (In
Turkish)
(Most of the books have been reserved in the library)
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I.
Soil Formations
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Outline of the First Topic
1. Geotechnical Problems
2. Soil Formations and Deposits
3. Phase Relations
4. Suggested Homework
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1. GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS
1.1 Foundations








Prevent the settlement
which can damage to
the building.

Soil improvement with
pre-loading

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1.2. Soils as a construction material








Cross-section of a earthfill dam Cross-section of a highway
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1.3. Slopes and excavations
Underpile and canal excavation
Excavation and revetment system Slope stability
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1.4. Underground and retaining structure
Retaining wall
Buried pipeline
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1.5. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Problem, etc.
- Vibrations
- Earthquakes and explosions
- Local collapses and sinkholes
- Freezing
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Solving The Geotechnical Problems
SOIL MECHANICS
- Stress-strain properties of soil (experimental
studies)
- Theoretical analysis
JEOLOGY, INVESTIGATION
- Litology, soil formation
EXPERIENCE
- The results of the earlier applications
ECONOMY
- The applicability of solution routes +
Engineering judgement =
Solving The Geotechnical Problems
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2. Soil Formations and Deposits
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2.1 Rock Cycles
Soils
(Das, 1998)
The final products
due to weathering are
soils
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2.2 Bowens Reaction Series
- The reaction series are similar to the weathering stability series.

More stable
Higher weathering resistance
(Das, 1998)
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Question
What is the main mineral of the sand
particles in general?
Quartz
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2.3 Weathering
2.3.1 Physical processes of weathering
- Unloading
e.g. uplift, erosion, or change in fluid
pressure.
- Thermal expansion and contraction
- Alternate wetting and drying
- Crystal growth, including frost action
- Organic activity
e.g. the growth of plant roots.

2.3.2 Chemical Process of weathering
- Hydrolysis
is the reaction with water
will not continue in the static water.
involves solubility of silica and alumina
- Chelation
Involves the complexing and
removal of metal ions .
- Cation exchange
is important to the formation of
clay minerals
- Oxidation and reduction.
- Carbonation
is the combination of carbonate
ions such as the reaction with CO
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2.3.3 Factors affect weathering
- Many factors can affect the
weathering process such as
climate, topography, features of
parent rocks, biological reactions,
and others.
- Climate determines the amount of
water and the temperature.

(Mitchell, 1993)
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2.4 Transportation of Weathering Products
2.4.1 Residual soils-
to remain at the original
place
- In some areas, the top layer of
rock is decomposed into
residual soils due to the warm
climate and abundant rainfall .
- Engineering properties of
residual soils are different with
those of transported soils
- The knowledge of "classical"
geotechnical engineering is
mostly based on behavior of
transported soils. The
understanding of residual soils
is insufficient in general.
2.4.2 Transported soils-
to be moved and deposited to
other places.
- The particle sizes of transported
soils are selected by the
transportation agents such as
streams, wind, etc.
Interstratification of silts and
clays.
- The transported soils can be
categorize based on the mode of
transportation and deposition (six
types).

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2.4.2 Transported Soils (Cont.)
(1) Glacial soils: formed by transportation and deposition of
glaciers.
(2) Alluvial soils: transported by running water and deposited
along streams.
(3) Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes
(4) Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas.
(5) Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by the wind (e.g.
soils in the loess plateau).
(6) Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its
original place by gravity, such as during
landslide (from Das, 1998)
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3. Phase Relations
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3.1 Three Phases in Soils
S : Solid Soil particle
W: Liquid Water (electrolytes)
A: Air Air
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Soil: A 3-Phase Material
Solid
Water
Air
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The Mineral Skeleton
Volume
Solid Particles
Voids (air or
water)
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Three Phase Diagram
Solid
Air
Water
Mineral Skeleton
Idealization:
Three Phase Diagram
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Fully Saturated Soils
Fully
Saturated
Water
Solid
Mineral Skeleton
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Dry Soils
Mineral Skeleton
Dry Soil
Air
Solid
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Partly Saturated Soils
Solid
Air
Water
Mineral Skeleton Partly Saturated Soils
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Structural properties (Some concepts)
w
n
: Natural water content
n : Porozity
e : Void ratio
: Bulk density
: Unit weigth (,
s
,
sat
,
d
, )
S : Degree of saturation
G : Specific gravity
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T
o
t
a
l

v
o
l
u
m
e
=
V

soil
water
air
V
v

V
s

V
w

V
a
M
h
~0
M
w

M
s

T
o
t
a
l

m
a
s
s
=
M

Volume Mass
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3.2 Three Volumetric Ratios
(1) Void ratio e (given in decimal, 0.65)



(2) Porosity n (given in percent 100%, 65%)



(3) Degree of Saturation S (given in percent 100%, 65%)
) V ( solids of Volume
) V ( voids of Volume
e
s
v
=
) V ( sample soil of volume Total
) V ( voids of Volume
n
t
v
=
% 100
) V ( voids of volume Total
) V ( water contains voids of volume Total
S
v
w
=
e 1
e
) e 1 ( V
e V
n
s
s
+
=
+
=
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Volumetric Relationships
Volume Components:
- Volume of Solids = V
s

- Volume of Water = V
w

- Volume of Air = V
a

- Volume of Voids = V
a
+ V
w
= V
v



s
v
V
V
e Ratio Void = ,
% 100 (%) , =
T
v
V
V
n Porosity
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Volumetric Relationships
Volume Components:
- Volume of Solids = V
s

- Volume of Water = V
w

- Volume of Air = V
a

- Volume of Voids = V
a
+ V
w
= V
v


% 100 (%) , =
V
w
V
V
S Saturation of Degree
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3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)
Typical values
Engineering applications:






-Volume change tendency
-Strength

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)
Simple cubic (SC), e = 0.91, Contract
Cubic-tetrahedral (CT), e = 0.65, Dilate
Link: the strength of
rock joint
) i tan( strength Shear
n
+ | o =
i
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3.2.1 Engineering Implications (e)(Cont.)
- Hydraulic conductivity
Which packing (SC or
CT) has higher hydraulic
conductivity?





SC
e = 0.91
CT
e = 0.65
The fluid (water) can flow more easily through the
soil with higher hydraulic conductivity
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3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)(Cont.)
SC
e = 0.91
CT
e = 0.65
The finer particle cannot pass
through the void
Clogging
-Critical state soil mechanics
Filter
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3.2.2 Engineering Applications (S)
Completely dry soil S = 0 %
Completely saturated soil S = 100%
Unsaturated soil (partially saturated soil) 0% < S < 100%
Demonstration:
Effects of capillary forces

Engineering implications:
-Slope stability
-Underground excavation
% 100
) V ( voids of volume Total
) V ( water contains voids of volume Total
S
v
w
=
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3.2.2 Engineering Applications (S) (Cont.)
80 % of landslides are due to
erosion and loss in suction
The slope stability is significantly
affected by the surface water.
(Au, 2001)
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3.3 Density and Unit Weight
Mass is a measure of a body's
inertia, or its "quantity of
matter". Mass is not changed at
different places.

Weight is force, the force of
gravity acting on a body. The
value is different at various
places (Newton's second law F
= ma) (Giancoli, 1998)

The unit weight is frequently
used than the density is (e.g. in
calculating the overburden
pressure).
w
s
w
s
w
s
s
3
2
g
g
G
m
kN
8 . 9 , Water
sec
m
8 . 9 g
gravity to due on accelerati : g
Volume
g Mass
Volume
Weight
, weight Unit
Volume
Mass
, Density

=


=

=
=
= =

= =
=
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3.4 Weight Relationships
(1)Water Content w (100%)



For some organic soils w>100%, up to
500 %
For quick clays, w>100%

(2)Density of water (slightly varied
with temperatures)
(3) Density of soil
a. Dry density



b. Total, Wet, or Moist density (0%<S<100%,
Unsaturated)



c. Saturated density (S=100%, V
a
=0)



d. Submerged density (Buoyant density)
% 100
) (
) (
=
s
w
M solids soil of Mass
M water of Mass
w
) V ( sample soil of volume Total
) M ( solids soil of Mass
t
s
d
=
) V ( sample soil of volume Total
) M M ( sample soil of Mass
t
w s
+
=
) V ( sample soil of volume Total
) M M ( water solids soil of Mass
t
w s
sat
+ +
=
w sat
'
=
3 3 3
w
m / Mg 1 m / kg 1000 cm / g 1 = = =
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3.4 Weight Relationships (Cont.)
Submerged unit weight:

Consider the buoyant force
acting on the soil solids:



Archimedes principle:
The buoyant force on a body immersed
in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by that object.

w sat
' =
w sat
t
w t w s
t
w w t s
t
w w t s
t
w s s
V
V W W
V
W V W
%) 100 S (
V
) V V ( W
V
V W
=
+
=
+
=
=

=

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Weight Relationships
Weight Components:
- Weight of Solids = W
s

- Weight of Water = W
w

- Weight of Air ~ 0


% 100 (%) , =
s
w
W
W
w Content Water
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Soil Unit weight (lb/ft
3
or kN/m
3
)
Bulk (or Total) Unit weight

= W
T
/ V
T
Dry unit weight

d
= W
s
/ V
T
Buoyant (submerged) unit weight

b
= -
w


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Typical Unit weights
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3.4.1 Engineering Applications (w)
For fine-grained soils, water plays
a critical role to their engineering
properties (discussed in the next
topic).
For example,
The quick clay usually has a water
content w greater than 100 % and a
card house structure. It will behave
like a viscous fluid after it is fully
disturbed.
Clay
particle
Water
(Mitchell, 1993)
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3.5 Other Relationships
(1) Specific gravity




(2)

Proof:





w
s
w
s
s
G

=
s
s w
G w e S
w e S
=
=
s
w
w
w
s
s
s
w
w
s
s
w
s
s
w
s
v
v
w
s
V
V
V
M
V
M
M
M
M
M
G w
V
V
V
V
V
V
e S
G w e S
= =

=
= =
=
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3.6 Specific Gravity
Unit weight of Water,
w

-
w
= 1.0 g/cm
3
(strictly accurate at 4 C)
-
w
= 62.4 pcf
-
w
= 9.81 kN/m
3
Water of Volume Equal an of Weight
ce Subs a of Weight
Gravity Specific
tan
=
Water of Weight Unit
ce Subs a of Weight Unit
Gravity Specific
tan
=
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Specific Gravity
Iron 7.86
Aluminum 2.55-2.80
Lead 11.34
Mercury 13.55

Granite 2.69
Marble 2.69
Quartz 2.60
Feldspar 2.54-2.62
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Typical Values of Specific Gravity
(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)
(Goodman, 1989)
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3.7 Solution of Phase Problems
Remember the following simple rules (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981):

1. Remember the basic definitions of w, e,
s
, S,
etc.
2. Draw a phase diagram.
3. Assume either V
s
=1 or V
t
=1, if not given.
4. Often use
w
Se=w
s
, Se = wG
s

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Example: Volumetric Ratios
Determine void ratio, porosity and
degree of saturation of a soil core
sample
Data:
Weight of soil sample = 1013g
Vol. of soil sample = 585.0cm
3
Specific Gravity, G
s
= 2.65
Dry weight of soil = 904.0g

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Solid
Air
Water
W
a
~0
Volumes
Weights
1013.0g
585.0cm
3

904.0g

s
=2.65
109.0g
341.1cm
3

109.0cm
3

243.9cm
3

134.9cm
3

W
=1.00
Example
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585.0cm
3

Solid
Air
Water
Volumes

s
=2.65
341.1cm
3

109.0cm
3

243.9cm
3

134.9cm
3

W
=1.00
Example
% 7 . 44 100
9 . 243
0 . 109
% 100 (%)
% 7 . 41 100
0 . 585
9 . 243
% 100 (%)
72 . 0
1 . 341
9 . 243
= = =
= = =
= = =
v
w
T
v
s
v
V
V
S
V
V
n
V
V
e
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4. Standards
Standards
- ASTM D854-92 Standard Test Method for Specific
Gravity of Soils

- ASTM C127-88 (Reapproved 1993) Test Methods for
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate.

- BS 1377: Part 2:1990


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5. Suggested Homework
1. Please go over example 2-
1 to 2-6 in An Introduction
to Geotechnical
Engineering, (Holtz, R.D.
and Kovacs, W.D. (1981).
Prentice Hall.)

There will be some similar
questions in the final exam.
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6. References
Main References:
Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th edition, PWS Publishing
Company. (Chapter 2)
Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering,
Prentice Hall. (Chapter 2)
Others:
Giancoli, D.C. (1998). Physics, 5th edition, Prentice Hall.
Goodman, R.E. (1989). Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons.
Head, K. H. (1992). Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 1: Soil Classification and
Compaction Test, 2
nd
edition, John Wiley and Sons.
Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. (1979). Soil Mechanics, SI Version, John Wiley & Sons.
Mitchell, J.K. (1993). Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons.