An Introduction to

Geology

Geology 201: Physical Geology

Semester 131, 2013
Room: 3-109

Lecture hours: 2

Practical/Lab hours: 3
Lab: Sun. 14:10 16:50
Class time: Sun & Tues 11:00 11:50
Instructors Names: Dr. Michael A. Kaminski, Dr. Khalid Al Ramadan
Email: kaminski@kfupm.edu.sa
Office: Geology Lab building, 26-102

Textbooks:
Tarbuck & Lutgens - Earth (10th Edition). Pearson International
Other References: Will be distributed as needed.
Field Trip: One day trip to visit the Paleogene (time to be announced).

Geology 201: Geology Topics

Module 1
Introduction to Geology (Week 1)
Sept. 1
Plate tectonics 2
Sept. 8
Minerals 3
Sept. 15
Igneous rocks & Volcanoes 4
Sept. 22
Weathering & Soil 5
Sept. 29
Module 2
Sedimentary rocks 6
Oct. 6
Metamorphic rocks 7
Oct. 20
Geologic time 8
Oct. 27
Crustal deformation 9
Nov. 3
Mass Wasting 10
Nov. 10
Module 3
Groundwater (Dr. Al Shaibani) 11
Nov. 17
Deserts & Winds 12
Nov. 24
Shorelines 13
Dec. 1
Earth through Time 14
Dec. 8
Energy & Mineral Resources 15
Dec. 15

The science of Geology

Geology is the science that pursues an

understanding of planet Earth
Physical geology - examines the materials
composing Earth and seeks to understand
the many processes that operate beneath
and upon its surface
Historical geology - seeks an
understanding of the origin of Earth and
its development through time

The science of Geology

Geology, people, and the environment
There are many important relationships
between people and the natural
environment
Some of the problems and issues
addressed by geology involve natural
hazards, resources, world population
growth, and environmental issues

The science of Geology

Some historical notes about geology

The nature of Earth has been a focus of
study for centuries
Catastrophism
Uniformitarianism and the birth of
modern geology

Founders of Geology
Catastrophism:

Postulated there were many wholesale

extinctions of millions of organisms caused by
violent oscillations in the sea
Noted that fossils in younger strata were
more like modern organisms
Successive extinctions must have eliminated
many unknown species
Baron Georges Cuvier
(1769-1832)

"Why has not anyone seen that fossils alone gave birth to a theory about the
formation of the earth, that without them, no one would have ever dreamed that
there were successive epochs in the formation of the globe. -- G. Cuvier

Founders of Geology
1726-1797

James Hutton

Father of Modern Geology

Edinburgh physician & geologist.

Established Plutonism: Believed
rocks were formed by fire.
Recognized change on the Earths
surface
(Surface processes are active)
Developed a cyclic view of Earth
No vestige of a beginning, no
prospect of an end.

By observing geologic processes in operation around him,

Hutton could infer the origin of features observed in rocks.

"The mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time.".

Founders of Geology
Hutton laid the foundation for Charles
Lyells uniformitarianism.

uniformity of causes
uniformity of intensity of change
The past history of our globe must be
explained by what can be seen to be
happening now.
Present is the key to the past.
(Sir Archibald Geike 1835-1924)

Founders of Geology
Geological past has been different than
today:
Atmosphere
Life
Meteorite Impacts
Elevation of Continents
Climate

Rate of change and intensity varied, but

processes are the same.

Geologic time

Geologists are now able to assign fairly

accurate dates to events in Earth history
Relative dating and the geologic time
scale

Relative dating means that dates are

placed in their proper sequence or order
without knowing their age in years

The Geological
Timescale

Telling Geological Time

(Chapter 9)

Geologic time

The magnitude of geologic time

Involves vast times millions or billions of
years
An appreciation for the magnitude of
geologic time is important because many
processes are very gradual

Geological Time on a 12-hr clock

New abbreviated Reference

Jim Ogg (Purdue Univ.)

International Commission on Stratigraphy

www.stratigraphy.org

16

The nature of scientific inquiry

Science assumes the natural world is

consistent and predictable
Goal of science is to discover patterns in
nature and use the knowledge to make
predictions
Scientists collect facts through
observation and measurements

The nature of scientific inquiry

How or why things happen are explained

using a
Hypothesis a tentative (or untested)
explanation
Theory a well-tested and widely
accepted view that the scientific
community agrees best explains certain
observable facts

The nature of scientific inquiry

Scientific methods

Scientific method involves gathering facts

through observations and formulation of
hypotheses and theories

There is no fixed path that scientists

follow that leads to scientific knowledge

A view of Earth

Earth is a planet that is small and selfcontained

Earths four spheres
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Solid Earth

Earth as a system

Earth is a dynamic planet with many

interacting parts or spheres
Parts of the Earth system are linked
Characterized by processes that
Vary on spatial scales from fractions of
millimeter to thousands of kilometers
Have time scales that range from
milliseconds to billions of years

Earth as a system

The Earth system is powered by the Sun

that drives external processes in the
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
At Earths surface

Earths cycles

Earth as a system

The Earth system is also powered by the Earths interior

Heat remaining from the formation of the Earth and heat that is
continuously generated by radioactive decay powers the internal
processes that produce volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountains

The rock cycle: part of the

Earth system

The loop that involves the processes by

which one rock changes to another
Illustrates the various processes and
paths as earth materials change both on
the surface and inside the Earth

Founders of Geology

William Smith (1769-1839):

explained the Rock Cycle
principle of fossil succession
Considered the Father of Stratigraphy

Smiths Rock Cycle

Rock
Cycle
Many processes
are involved:
Uplift
Erosion
Weathering
Burial
Lithification
Metamorphism

The face of Earth

Earths surface has two principal

divisions
Continents
Ocean basins

Significant difference between the

continents and ocean basins is their
relative levels

Continents & Oceans

The face of Earth

Continents
Most prominent features are linear
mountain belts
Shields

Ocean basins
Ocean ridge system the most prominent
topographic feature on Earth
Deep-ocean trenches

Continents & oceans

Early evolution of Earth

Origin of planet Earth

Most researchers believe that Earth and
the other planets formed at essentially the
same time from the same primordial
material as the Sun
Nebular hypothesis

Layered structure developed by chemical

segregation early in the formation of
Earth

Age of the Universe ~12-18 b.y.

The Coma Cluster of Galaxies O. Lopez-Cruz and I. K. Shelton (U. Toronto), Kitt Peak National Obs.

Formation of the Solar System 4.6 b.y.

The Nebula hypothesis

Gravitational collapse of a gaseous cloud

Particles to planet

original artwork by Gary Hincks

Earths internal structure

Earths internal layers can be defined by

Chemical composition
Physical properties

Layers defined by composition

Crust
Mantle
Core

Earths internal structure

Four main layers of Earth are based on

physical properties and hence mechanical
strength
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Mesosphere
Core

Earths Crust & Asthenosphere

Dynamic Earth

The theory of plate tectonics

Involves understanding the workings of
our dynamic planet
Began in the early part of the twentieth
century with a proposal called continental
drift the idea that continents moved
about the face of the planet

Empirical evidence of continental drift

The Menard Fit:
continents show very
little overlap or gaps
at their margins when
the plates are
reconstructed like a
jigsaw puzzle on the
surface of the globe

Dynamic Earth

The theory of plate tectonics

Theory, called plate tectonics, has now

emerged that provides geologists with the
first comprehensive model of Earths
internal workings

Plate boundaries

All major interactions among individual

plates occurs along their boundaries

Major Plates

Major Plates

Dynamic Earth

Plate boundaries
Divergent boundary two plates move
apart, resulting in upwelling of material
from the mantle to create new seafloor
Convergent boundary two plates move
together with subduction of oceanic plates
or collision of two continental plates

Plate Boundaries

Dynamic Earth

Plate boundaries
Transform boundaries - located where
plates grind past each other without either
generating new lithosphere or consuming
old lithosphere
Changing boundaries - new plate
boundaries are created in response to
changes in the forces acting on the
lithosphere

Divergent and Transform boundaries