Principles of Anatomy

and Physiology
Thirteenth Edition
Gerard J. Tortora Bryan H. Derrickson

Chapter 18
The Endocrine System

Copyright 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

PINEAL GLAND
HYPOTHALAMUS
Thyroid gland

PARATHYROID
GLANDS

PITUITARY GLAND

Trachea

THYROID GLAND
Trachea

PARATHYROID GLANDS
(behind thyroid glands)

SKIN

THYMUS

Lung

HEART

LIVER

STOMACH

ADRENAL
GLANDS

KIDNEY
Uterus

PANCREAS
OVARY

SMALL
INTESTINE
Female

Scrotum

TESTES
Male

Endocrine
cell

Circulating hormone

Blood
capillary

Hormone
receptor

Distant target cells

(a) Circulating hormones

Paracrine receptor

Paracrine
Paracrine cell

Nearby target cell

Autocrine
cell

Autocrine
(b) Local hormones (paracrines and autocrines)

Autocrine
receptor

Steroid hormones

Aldosterone

Thyroid hormones

Triiodothyronine (T3)

Amines

Norepinephrine

Peptides and proteins

Oxytocin

Eicosanoids

A leukotriene (LTB4)

Free hormone

Transport protein

2 Activated receptor

hormone
complex alters gene
expression
Cytosol

Blood capillary
1 Lipid-soluble hormone

diffuses into cell

Nucleus
Receptor
DNA

mRNA
Ribosome

3 Newly

Formed mRNA
directs synthesis of
specific proteins on
ribosomes

New
protein
4 New proteins alter

cell's activity

Target cell

Blood capillary

Binding of hormone (first messenger) to its receptor activates

G protein, which activates adenylate cyclase

Water-soluble
hormone

Adenylate cyclase

Receptor

Second messenger

G protein
ATP

cAMP

2 Activated adenylate
cyclase converts
ATP to cAMP

6 Phosphodiesterase

Protein kinases

3 cAMP serves as a Activated inactivates cAMP

second messenger protein
to activate protein kinases
kinases
4 Activated protein
Protein
kinases
phosphorylate
ATP
cellular proteins
ADP
Protein - P

5 Millions of phosphorylated

proteins cause reactions that

produce physiological responses

Target cell

Infundibulum
Hypothalamus

POSTERIOR
PITUITARY

ANTERIOR
PITUITARY

Pituitary gland
Sagittal section of pituitary gland
Primary plexus of
hypophyseal portal system
Infundibulum

HYPOTHALAMUS
Median eminence
Superior hypophyseal
artery

Posterior hypophyseal
veins

Hypophyseal portal veins

Sphenoid bone

POSTERIOR
PITUITARY

ANTERIOR PITUITARY

Capillary plexus of
infundibular process

Secondary plexus of
hypophyseal portal system

Hypophyseal
fossa

Anterior hypophyseal
veins
POSTERIOR

ANTERIOR

Inferior hypophyseal artery

(a) Relationship of hypothalamus to pituitary gland

Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
cell
Primary plexus of
hypophyseal portal system

Hypophyseal
portal veins

(b) Path of releasing and inhibiting hormones

Corticotroph
Somatotroph

Thyrotroph

Lactotroph
Gonadotroph

LM all about 65x

(c) Histology of anterior pituitary

Corticotropin-releasing
hormone (CRH)
Hypothalamus
CRH stimulates release of
corticotropin (ACTH)

Anterior pituitary

Corticotropin stimulates
secretion of cortisol by
adrenal cortex

Adrenal
cortex

Cortisol

Corticotropin
(ACTH)

Elevated cortisol
inhibits release
of CRH by
hypothalamic
neurosecretory
cells

Elevated cortisol
inhibits release
of corticotropin
by anterior
pituitary
corticotrophs

1 Low blood glucose

6 High blood glucose

(hypoglycemia)
stimulates release of

(hyperglycemia)
stimulates release of

GHRH GHIH

2 GHRH stimulates

secretion
of hGH by
somatotrophs

GHIH inhibits
secretion of
hGH by
somatotrophs

hGH
Anterior
pituitary

3 hGH and IGFs speed

8 A low level of hGH and

up breakdown of liver
glycogen into glucose,
which enters the blood
more rapidly

4 Blood glucose level

rises to normal
(about 90 mg/100 mL)

5 If blood glucose
continues to increase,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of GHRH

IGFs decreases the rate

of glycogen breakdown
in the liver and glucose
enters the blood more
slowly

9 Blood glucose level

falls to normal
(about 90 mg/100 mL)

10

If blood glucose
continues to decrease,
hypoglycemia inhibits
release of GHIH

Human growth hormone (hGH),

also known as somatotropin

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Ovaries

Testes

Liver (and other tissues)

Prolactin (PRL)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH),
also known as thyrotropin
Mammary glands
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
also known as corticotropin

Thyroid gland

Adrenal
cortex

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

Ovaries

Testes

Brain

Hypothalamus
Neurosecretory cells
Pituitary gland
HYPOTHALAMUS
Optic
chiasm

Capillary plexus
of the posterior
pituitary

Infundibulum
Axons of neurosecretory cells

Axon terminal
POSTERIOR
PITUITARY

ANTERIOR
PITUITARY

1 High blood osmotic pressure

5 Low blood osmotic pressure

stimulates hypothalamic
osmoreceptors

inhibits hypothalamic
osmoreceptors

Osmoreceptors

2 Osmoreceptors
activate neurosecretory
cells that synthesize
and release ADH

6 Inhibition of osmoreceptors

reduces or stops ADH secretion

Hypothalamus

3 Nerve impulses
liberate ADH from
axon terminals in
posterior pituitary into
bloodstream
ADH

Target tissues

4 Kidneys retain
more water,
which decreases
urine output

Sudoriferous (sweat)
glands decrease water
loss by perspiration
from skin

Arterioles constrict,
which increases
blood pressure

Oxytocin (OT)

Uterus

Mammary glands

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

or vasopressin

Kidneys

Sudoriferous
(sweat) glands

Arterioles

Hyoid bone
Superior thyroid artery

Thyroid
gland

Trachea

Superior thyroid vein

Pyramidal lobe of
thyroid gland

Thyroid cartilage of larynx

RIGHT LATERAL LOBE

OF THYROID GLAND

LEFT LATERAL LOBE

OF THYROID GLAND

Middle thyroid vein

Common carotid artery

Inferior thyroid artery

ISTHMUS OF THYROID
GLAND
Vagus (X) nerve

Internal jugular vein

Subclavian artery

Trachea
Inferior thyroid veins
Sternum

(a) Anterior view of thyroid gland

Parafollicular (C) cell

Follicular cell

Thyroid follicle

Thyroglobulin (TGB)
(colloid)
Basement membrane

LM 500x
(b) Thyroid follicles

LEFT LATERAL
LOBE

RIGHT LATERAL
LOBE
ISTHMUS

(c) Anterior view of thyroid gland

Thyroid cartilage of larynx

Cricoid cartilage of larynx

RIGHT LATERAL LOBE OF THYROID GLAND
LEFT LATERAL LOBE OF THYROID GLAND
ISTHMUS OF THYROID GLAND

Trachea

Right lung

Arch of aorta
(d) Anterior view

Portion of thyroid follicle

Follicular
cell

Colloid

4 Iodination

of tyrosine
Blood capillary

5 Coupling

of T1 and T2

Tyrosine

T1

T2

T4
3 Oxidation
of iodide

T3

Colloid

I2

TGB

6 Pinocytosis

and digestion
of colloid

Secretory
vesicles

Lysosome

Golgi complex
I

I
I

2 Synthesis
of TGB

Rough ER

1 Iodide

I
I

Key:

T3 T
4
7 Secretion

of thyroid
hormones

trapping

T3
T4

T3 TBG
Blood
T4 TBG
plasma

I = Iodide; I2 = Iodine
TGB = thyroglobulin
TBG = thyroxine-binding globulin

8 Transport
in blood

Blood capillary

1 Low blood levels of T3 and

T4 or low metabolic rate
stimulates release of

Hypothalamus

TRH

2 TRH, carried
by hypophyseal
portal veins to
anterior pituitary,
stimulates
release of TSH
by thyrotrophs

5 Elevated T3 inhibits release of TRH

and TSH (negative feedback)

TSH

3 TSH released into

blood stimulates
thyroid follicular cells

Anterior
pituitary

4 T3 and T4 released into

Thyroid
follicle

blood by follicular
cells

T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) or

thyroid hormones from follicular cells

Thyroid
follicle

Follicular
cells
Blood
vessel

Calcitonin (CT) from parafollicular cells

Thyroid
follicle
Parafollicular cells

Parathyroid
glands (behind
thyroid gland)

Trachea

Right internal jugular vein

Right common carotid artery
Middle cervical
sympathetic ganglion
Thyroid gland

LEFT SUPERIOR
PARATHYROID GLAND

RIGHT SUPERIOR
PARATHYROID GLAND

Esophagus

Inferior cervical
sympathetic ganglion

LEFT INFERIOR
PARATHYROID GLAND

RIGHT INFERIOR
PARATHYROID GLAND

Left inferior thyroid artery

Vagus (X) nerve

Left subclavian artery

Right brachiocephalic vein

Brachiocephalic trunk

Left subclavian vein

Left common carotid artery

Trachea
(a) Posterior view

Venule
Capillary

Arteriole
Chief cell

Oxyphil cell

(b) Parathyroid gland

LM

240x

Capsule

Parathyroid
Thyroid

Follicular cell
Parafollicular cell

Chief cell
Oxyphil cell

Thyroid gland

Parathyroid gland

Blood vessel

(c) Portion of thyroid gland (left) and parathyroid gland (right)

PARATHYROID
GLAND
Thyroid gland

PARATHYROID
GLAND

(d) Posterior view of parathyroid glands

1 High level of Ca2+ in blood

stimulates thyroid gland
parafollicular cells to release
more CT.

3 Low level of Ca2+ in blood stimulates

parathyroid gland chief cells to
release more PTH.

6 CALCITRIOL stimulates
increased absorption of
Ca2+ from foods, which
increases blood Ca2+ level.

5 PTH also stimulates

the kidneys to release
CALCITRIOL.

4 PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)

Ca2+ from

promotes release of
bone extracellular matrix into
blood and slows loss of Ca2+
in urine, thus increasing blood
Ca2+ level.

2 CALCITONIN inhibits
osteoclasts, thus decreasing
blood Ca2+ level.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

from chief cells
Chief cell

Adrenal
glands

Inferior phrenic arteries

Kidney

Right superior
suprarenal arteries

LEFT ADRENAL GLAND

Celiac trunk

RIGHT ADRENAL
GLAND

Left middle suprarenal artery

Right middle
suprarenal artery

Left inferior suprarenal artery

Right inferior
suprarenal artery

Left suprarenal vein

Right renal artery

Left renal vein

Left renal artery

Right renal vein

Superior
mesenteric artery
Inferior vena cava

Abdominal aorta

(a) Anterior view

CAPSULE
ADRENAL
CORTEX

ADRENAL
MEDULLA

(b) Section through left adrenal gland

ADRENAL GLAND

Kidney

(c) Anterior view of adrenal gland and kidney

Capsule
Adrenal cortex:
Zona glomerulosa
secretes
mineralocorticoids,
mainly aldosterone
Zona fasciculata
secretes
glucocorticoids,
mainly cortisol
Zona reticularis
secretes androgens

Adrenal medulla
chromaffin cells secrete
epinephrine and
norepinephrine (NE)
LM 50x

(d) Subdivisions of adrenal gland

Dehydration,
Na+ deficiency,
or hemorrhage

Decrease in
blood volume

14

Juxtaglomerular
cells of kidneys

Decrease in
blood volume

15

5
Liver 6

10

Adrenal
cortex

Increased
angiotensin I

16

12
Increased
angiotensin II

Increased
aldosterone

Increased blood
volume

Increased
K+ in
extracellular
fluid

11

ACE
Lungs (ACE = angiotensin
converting enzyme)

13

Vasoconstriction
of arterioles

Increased renin

Angiotensinogen

Blood pressure
increases until
it returns to normal

In kidneys, increased Na+

and water reabsorption
and increased secretion of
K+ and H+ into urine

Some stimulus disrupts

homeostasis by

Decreasing
Glucocorticoid level
in blood

Receptors
Neurosecretory
cells in
hypothalamus
Input

Increased CRH and

decreased cortisol

Control center
Corticotrophs in
anterior pituitary

Output

Increased ACTH

Effectors
Cells of zona
fasciculata in
adrenal cortex
secrete glucocorticoids

Increased glucocorticoid
level in blood

Return to homeostasis
when response brings
glucocorticoid level in
blood back to normal

Androgens (mainly dehydroepiandrosterone, or DHEA) from zona reticularis cells

Adrenal
cortex

Epinephrine and norepinephrine from chromaffin cells

Adrenal
medulla

Common hepatic artery

Pancreas
Kidney

Abdominal aorta
Celiac trunk
Splenic artery

Gastroduodenal artery
Dorsal pancreatic artery
Anterior pancreaticoduodenal
artery

Spleen
(elevated)

Duodenum of small
intestine

TAIL OF PANCREAS
BODY OF PANCREAS
Inferior pancreatic artery
Superior mesenteric artery
Inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery
HEAD OF PANCREAS

(a) Anterior view

Blood capillary
Exocrine acini
Alpha cell
(secretes glucagon)
Beta cell
(secretes insulin)
Delta cell
(secretes somatostatin)

F cell (secretes
pancreatic polypeptide)
(b) Pancreatic islet and surrounding acini

Exocrine
acinus
Pancreatic
islet
Beta
cell
Alpha
cell

LM 200x

Pancreatic
duct
LM 40x

(c) Pancreatic islet and surrounding acini

Pancreas

Duodenum
(cut open)

(d) Anterior view of pancreas dissected to reveal pancreatic duct

1 Low blood

High blood glucose

(hyperglycemia) stimulates
beta cells to secrete

glucose(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha cells to secrete

GLUCAGON
2 Glucagon acts on

INSULIN
6

hepatocytes (liver
cells) to:

accelerate facilitated
diffusion of glucose into
cells
speed conversion of glucose
into glycogen (glycogenesis)
increase uptake of amino
acids and increase protein
synthesis
speed synthesis of fatty
acids (lipogenesis)
slow glycogenolysis
slow gluconeogenesis

convert glycogen into

glucose (glycogenolysis)
form glucose from lactic
acid and certain amino
acids (gluconeogenesis)

3 Glucose released by

hepatocytes raises blood

glucose level to normal

If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon

Insulin acts on various

body cells to:

Blood glucose level falls

If blood glucose continues

to fall, hypoglycemia
inhibits release of insulin

Glucagon from alpha

cells of pancreatic islets

Insulin from beta cells

of pancreatic islets

Alpha cell
Beta cell

Somatostatin from delta

cells of pancreatic islets

Pancreatic polypeptide from

F cells of pancreatic islets

Delta cell

F cell

Estrogens and
progesterone

Ovaries

Testosterone

Testes

STRESSORS
stimulate
CRH
GHRH
TRH

Nerve
impulses

Hypothalamus

Sympathetic centers
in spinal cord

Anterior
pituitary

Key:
CRH = Corticotropin-releasing hormone
ACTH = Adrenocorticotropic hormone
GHRH = Growth hormonereleasing hormone
hGH = Human growth hormone
TRH = Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
TSH = Thyroid-stimulating hormone

TSH
hGH
ACTH
Sympathetic nerves
ACTH
Adrenal
medulla

Adrenal
cortex

hGH

Liver

TSH

Thyroid
gland

Visceral effectors
Cortisol
Epinephrine and
norepinephrine
Supplement
and prolong
fight-orflight
responses

STRESS RESPONSES
1. Increased heart rate and
force of beat
2. Constriction of blood
vessels of most viscera and
skin
3. Dilation of blood vessels of
heart, lungs, brain, and
skeletal muscles
4. Contraction of spleen
5. Conversion of glycogen
into glucose in liver
6. Sweating
7. Dilation of airways
8. Decrease in digestive
activities
9. Water retention and
elevated blood pressure

(a) Fight-or-flight responses

IGFs

STRESS RESPONSES
Lipolysis
Gluconeogenesis
Protein catabolism
Sensitized blood vessels
Reduced inflammation

Thyroid hormones
(T3 and T4)

STRESS
RESPONSES

STRESS
RESPONSES

Lipolysis
Glycogenolysis

Increased use
of glucose to
produce ATP

(b) Resistance reaction

Pharyngeal pouches

Hypothalamus
Neurohypophyseal bud
4 3

1
Hypophyseal
(Rathkes) pouch

Stomodeum
Esophagus
Respiratory diverticulum

Thyroid diverticulum

(a) Location of neurohypophyseal bud, hypophyseal (Rathkes) pouch, thyroid

diverticulum, and pharyngeal pouches in 28-day embryo

Neurohypophyseal bud

Hypothalamus
Infundibulum

Infundibulum
Pars intermedia
Infundibulum

Hypophyseal
(Rathkes)
pouch

Mouth cavity

Mesenchyme

Anterior
pituitary
Posterior pituitary
(b) Development of pituitary gland between 5 and 16 weeks

(a) A 22-year-old man with pituitary giantism

shown beside his identical twin

(b) Acromegaly (excess hGH during adulthood)

(c) Goiter (enlargement of

thyroid gland)

(d) Exophthalmos (excess thyroid hormones, as in

Graves disease)

(e) Cushings syndrome (excess

glucocorticoids)