G E N E T I C S-I

MODULE-9
SEX DETERMINATION
9.1 ANIMALS

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Define the term sex chromosome vs. autosomal chromosomes.

Describe the sex determining mechanisms in the animal kingdom

sex chromosome mediated methods viz: XY-XX; XO-XX; ZW-ZZ;
Z0-ZZ .
Describe the Chromosome Balance Theory of Sex Determination;
haplo-diploidy; haplo-diploidy and complementary genes; genic
control of sex.

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain the following mechanisms of sex determination using
appropriate examples to illustrate:

(a) Mammalian XY-XX system

(b) Protenor XX-XO system
(c) Birds ZW-ZZ system
(d) ZO-ZZ system
(e) Sex Balance Theory (genic balance)
(f) Yeast (MATa MAT mating types)
(g) Environmental sex determination

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Sex determination in the animal kingdom

XY

XX

XX

Females: two X-chromosomes,

homogametic.
Males: single X-chromosome and Ychromosome, heterogametic.

XY

Lygaeus system
Most common, e.g. humans, rats, some reptiles-green iguana

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Sex determination in the animal kingdom (humans)
Normal humans

Some human abnormalities

SRY is a Y-linked gene and codes for testis-determining factor (maleness).

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Sex determination in the animal kingdom
grasshoppers

XO

Females: two X-chromosomes,

homogametic
Males: single X-chromosome,
heterogametic

XX
X

XX

O is not a chromosome.

XO

Protenor system
Insects: Hemiptera, Orthoptera

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Sex determination in the animal kingdom

ZZ

ZZ

ZW

Females: one Z and one W

chromosome, heterogametic
Males: two Z chromosomes,
homogametic

ZW

Birds, moths, some isopods, some amphibians and some fishes

The chromosomes are not shaped like Z or W, just to differentiate from XY system.

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Sex determination in the animal kingdom

ZO

Females: one Z chromosome,

heterogametic
Males: two Z chromosomes,
homogametic

ZZ

ZZ

ZO

Butterflies, caddies flies

O is not a chromosome.

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Sex determination in the animal kingdom
Lygaeus system (XY)
- homogametic sex is female
- heterogametic sex is male
- Sex ratio is 1:1
Protenor system (XO XX)
- homogametic sex is female
- heterogametic sex is male
- Sex ratio is 1:1
ZW system
- homogametic sex is male
- heterogametic sex is female
ZO system
- homogametic sex is male
- heterogametic sex is female

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Sex determination in the animal kingdom (environment)
Marine mollusk (Crepidula fornicata)- common slipper limpet.

Live in stacks- one on top of the other

First to settle on a solid unoccupied substrate develops into a female.
Those that settle on top become males and serve as mates for the female.
After a while the males turn into females and attract more male larvae on
top of them.
This is referred to as sequential hermaphroditism- each animal can be
both male and female, although not at the same time.

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Sex determination in the animal kingdom (environment)
Some reptiles- temperature during embryonic development determine
sexual phenotype.
Turtles- warm temperatures produces females; cool temperatures produce
males.
Alligators- warm temperature produces males (>34oC); cool temperatures
produce females (<30oC).

Effect of climate
change?

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Chromosome balance theory of sex determination
(Genic balance) in Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)
- Sex is determined by the balance between sex chromosomes and
autosomal complement of chromosomes
- Lets say that A represents a haploid set of autosomal chromosomes
X/A ratio = 1 or higher = female
X/A ratio = 0.5 or lower = male
X/A ratio = >0.5 - <1.0 = intersex
The genome of fly = AAXY
The genome of fly = AAXX
-Y chromosome is involved in male fertility but not in the determination of sex

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Evidence for the Genic balance theory in Drosophila melanogaster
Bridges (1922) observed that Drosophila occasionally produces a triploid
due to non-disjunction.

AAXY
AX

AY

AAXX

AAXX

AAXY

AX

AAXY

AX

AAAXXX
X/A = 1

x
AY

AAXX
AAXX

AAAXXY
X/A = 0.66

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Evidence for the Genic balance theory in Drosophila melanogaster

AAXY
AX

x
AY

AAAXXX
AAX

AXX

AAAXX

AAXXX AAAXY

AAXXY

X/A =0.6

X/A =1.5 X/A = 0.33

X/A = 1

INTERSEX

SUPERMALE
SUPERFEMALE

Male not fertile

FEMALE
Male fertile

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Intersex (Gynandromorphs) in
Drosophila melanogaster:
- Have male and female organs
- Highly influenced by envt
- high To more female
- low To more male
- Modifying factors also
influence
- more male or female

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Transformer gene sex determination in Drosophila melanogaster
Superimposed on the genic balance system is another level of
control of the determination of sex
- transformer gene (autosomal gene)
This gene in the homozygous recessive state (tra. tra) converts a
diploid female into a sterile male.
tra.tra
AAXX
AAXX

Sterile Male
Tra.__

Female

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Overall sex determination in Drosophila melanogaster

Genic
Balance
Transformer gene

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Haplo-diploidy sex determination
Autosomes alone are involved.
The number of autosomal complements determine sex.
e.g. Hymenopteran insects such as bees, wasps, ants
In Bees - eggs
haploid males (A)
(worker)
Pathenogenesis
(arrhenotoky)
Fertilisation

Diploid females (AA)

Quantity of food
The queen controls sex ratio

Queen

Female worker

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Haplo-diploidy + complementary gene method of sex determination
e.g. Hymenopteran insects such as bees, wasps, ants

In Wasps - eggs
Pathenogenesis
(arrhenotoky)

haploid males (A)

(worker)

Fertilisation
Homozyous gene S
Heterozygous gene S

Diploid male worker

Diploid female worker

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Haplo-diploidy + complementary gene method of sex determination
The S gene has 9 multiple alleles Sa, Sb, Sc, Sd.Si
Homozygous states

SaSa, SbSb, ScSc, SdSd SiSi = diploid worker males

Heterozygous states

SaSb, SaSc, SaSd etc

= diploid worker females

There are more heterozygous combinations than

homozygous and hence more worker females than worker
males

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Sex determination- one or few autosomal genes (genic sex determination)
Lower plants such as chlamydomonas and fungi
- one or a few autosomal genes control sex.

e.g. Chlamydomonas - A = + mating type

= - mating type
e.g Basidiomycete fungi two genes, A & B
AB mating type-1
Ab mating type-2
aB - mating type-3
ab mating type-4

Males and females look similar.

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SUMMARY
Fungi , lower plants

Single or few autosomal genes

Insects
Wasps
Bees
Drosophila

Entire autosomal complement + single gene

Entire autosomal complement
Autosomes + sex chromosomes

Higher animals

Sex chromosome mediated methods

- XY, XO, ZW, ZO
- environment