ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY

FIFIN PRADINA DUHITATRISSARI,

dr

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Terminologi anatomi dan struktur sel

Musculoskeletal System
Cardiovascular System
Respiratory System
Nervous System

Silabus
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Integument System
Digestive System
Urinary System
Male Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
Special Senses
Endocrine System

ANATOMY

Anatomy is the science of the structure (and

function) of the body.
Clinical anatomy is the study of the macroscopic
structure and function of the body as it relates to
the practice of medicine and other health sciences.
Basic anatomy is the study of the minimal amount
of anatomy consistent with the understanding of
the overall structure and function of the body.

Descriptive Anatomic Terms

Anatomy has an international vocabulary that

is the foundation of medical terminology
All descriptions of the human body are based
on the assumption that the person is
standing erect, with the upper limbs by the
sides and the face and palms of the hands
directed forward. This is the so-called
anatomic position.

Median Sagittal Plane : vertical plane

passing through the center of the body,
dividing it into equal right and left halves
Frontal (Coronal) Planes : vertical planes at
right angles to the median plane.
Horizontal, or Transverse, Planes : planes
are at right angles to both the median and
the coronal planes

Terms of Laterality

Bilateral
Unilateral
Ipsilateral
Contralateral

Superior or cranial : toward the head end of

the body; upper (example, the hand is part of
the superior extremity).
Inferior or caudal : away from the head; lower
(example, the foot is part of the inferior
extremity).

Anterior or ventral : front (example, the

kneecap is located on the anterior side of the
leg).
Posterior or dorsal :back (example, the
shoulder blades are located on the posterior
side of the body).

Medial : toward the midline of the body

(example, the middle toe is located at the
medial side of the foot).
Lateral : away from the midline of the body
(example, the little toe is located at the lateral
side of the foot).

Proximal : toward or nearest the trunk or the

point of origin of a part (example, the
proximal end of the femur joins with the
pelvic bone).
Distal : away from or farthest from the trunk
or the point or origin of a part (example, the
hand is located at the distal end of the
forearm).

Superficial : toward or on the surface of the

body (example, the ribs are superficial to the
lungs).
Deep : away from or farthest from the surface
of the body (example, the pancreas is deep
to the stomach).

Terms Related to Movement

Flexion is a movement that takes place in a

sagittal plane. an anterior movement ,
occasionally the case of the knee joint
Extension means straightening the joint and
usually takes place in a posterior direction.
Lateral flexion is a movement of the trunk in the
coronal plane.

Terms Related to Movement

Abduction is a movement of a limb away

from the midline of the body in the coronal
plane.
Adduction is a movement of a limb toward
the body in the coronal plane.
In the fingers and toes, abduction is applied
to the spreading of these structures and
adduction is applied to the drawing together
of these structures.

Terms Related to Movement

Rotation is the term applied to the movement of

a part of the body around its long axis. Medial
rotation is the movement that results in the
anterior surface of the part facing medially.
Lateral rotation is the movement that results in
the anterior surface of the part facing laterally.

Terms Related to Movement

Pronation of the forearm is a medial rotation

of the forearm in such a manner that the
palm of the hand faces posteriorly (Fig. 1-3).
Supination of the forearm is a lateral rotation
of the forearm from the pronated position so
that the palm of the hand comes to face
anteriorly

Terms Related to Movement

Circumduction is the combination in sequence of

the movements of flexion, extension, abduction,
and adduction.
Protraction is to move forward; retraction is to move
backward (used to describe the forward and
backward movement of the jaw at the
temporomandibular joints).
Inversion is the movement of the foot so that the
sole faces in a medial direction
Eversion is the opposite movement of the foot so
that the sole faces in a lateral direction.

HOMEOSTASIS

Composition of the internal environment is

maintained within narrow limits, and this fairly
constant state.
Maintenance of nearly constant conditions in
the internal environment.
'unchanging, but in practice it describes a
dynamic, ever-changing situation kept within
narrow limits.

PHYSIOLOGY

Goal of physiology is to explain the physical

and chemical factors that are responsible for
the origin, development, and progression of
life.
Human physiology, we attempt to explain the
specific characteristics and mechanisms of
the human body that make it a living being.

Protoplasm

Protoplasm is composed mainly of five basic

substances: water, electrolytes, proteins,
lipids, and carbohydrates.

Physical Structures of the Cell

Cell membrane
Cytoplasm and cell organelles
Nucleus

Water

Makes up 60% to 75% of the human body

Water is a solvent;
Water is a lubricant,
Water changes temperature slowly.

The principal fluid medium of the cell is water,

concentration of 70 to 85 per cent.
present in most cells
except for fat cells.

Body fluid compartments. Arrows

represent fluid movement.
Transcellular fluids, which constitute a
very small percentage of total body
fluids, are not shown.

WATER COMPARTMENTS
All water within the body is continually moving, but
water is given different names when it is in specific
body locations, which are called compartments
(Fig. 24).
Intracellular fluid (ICF)the water within cells;
about 65% of the total body water
Extracellular fluid (ECF)all the rest of the
water in the body; about 35% of the total. More
specific compartments of extracellular fluid
include:
Plasmawater found in blood vessels
Lymphwater found in lymphatic vessels
Tissue fluid or interstitial fluidwater found in the
small spaces between cells
Specialized fluidssynovial fluid, cerebrospinal
fluid, aqueous humor in the eye, and others

Ions

The most important ions in the cell are

potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+),
phosphate (PO43+), sulfate (SO42+),
bicarbonate (HCO3+), and smaller quantities
of sodium, chloride, and calcium

Proteins

Made of smaller subunits or building blocks called

amino acids.
Contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen.
Constitute 10 to 20 per cent of the cell mass.
Divided into two types: structural proteins and
functional proteins.
A bond between two amino acids : a peptide bond,
and a short chain of amino acids linked by peptide
bonds is a polypeptide.

Structural
proteins
Mainly in the form of long filaments
Polymers of many individual protein molecules.
Intracellular filaments is to form microtubules
cytoskeletons cellular organelles (cilia, nerve axons, the
mitotic spindles of mitosing cells, and a tangled mass of thin
filamentous tubules that hold the parts of the cytoplasm and
nucleoplasm together in their respective compartments.
Extracellularly, fibrillar proteins are found especially in the
collagen and elastin fibers of connective tissue and in blood
vessel walls, tendons, ligaments, and so forth.

FUNCTIONAL PROTEINS

The functional proteins are an entirely different type of

protein, usually composed of combinations of a few
molecules in tubular-globular form mainly the enzymes of
the cell and, in contrast to the fibrillar proteins, are often
mobile in the cell fluid.
Many of them are adherent to membranous structures
inside the cell.
The enzymes come into direct contact with other
substances in the cell fluid.
Catalyze specific intracellular chemical reactions.

LIPIDS

Lipids are several types of substances that are grouped

together because of their common property of being soluble
in fat solvents.
Especially important lipids are phospholipids and
cholesterol, which together constitute only about 2 per cent
of the total cell mass insoluble in water form the cell
membrane and intracellular membrane barriers
Triglycerides, also called neutral fat.
In the fat cells, triglycerides 95 per cent of the cell mass.
The fat stored in these cells represents the bodys main
storehouse of energy-giving nutrients that can later be
dissoluted and used to provide energy wherever in the body
it is needed.

Carbohydrates

Little structural function in the cell except as parts of glycoprotein

molecules.
Play a major role in nutrition of the cell.
Most human cells do not maintain large stores of carbohydrates;
Averages about 1 per cent total cell mass
Muscle cells as much as 3 per cent in and 6 per cent in liver cells.
Dissolved glucose is always present in the surrounding extracellular fluid
so that it is readily available to the cell.
Small amount of carbohydrate in the form of glycogen, which is an
insoluble polymer of glucose that can be depolymerized and used
rapidly to supply the cells energy needs.

Physical Structures of the Cell

Cell membrane
Cytoplasm and cell organelles
Nucleus

CELL MEMBRANE

plasma membrane
Envelops the cell
A thin, pliable, elastic structure only 7.5 to 10
nanometers thick.
It is composed almost entirely of proteins (55%)
and lipids (phospholipids, 25%; cholesterol, 13%;
4%; carbohydrates, 3%).
selectively permeable

Phospholipids

Diglycerides, and form a bilayer, or double layer, which makes up most of

the membrane.
Phospholipids permit lipid-soluble materials to easily enter or leave the
cell by diffusion through the cell membrane.
The presence of cholesterol decreases the fluidity of the membrane, thus
making it more stable.
One end of each phospholipid molecule is soluble in water; that is, it is
hydrophilic phoshate end
The other end is soluble only in fats; that is, it is hydrophobic fatty acid
portion
Impermeable to the usual water-soluble substances, such as ions,
glucose, and urea.
Conversely, fat-soluble substances(ec oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
alcohol) can penetrate this portion of the membrane with ease

Cell Membrane Proteins

Membrane proteins, most of which are glycoproteins.

Peripheral protein molecules are often attached to the integral
proteins. These peripheral proteins function almost entirely as
enzymes or as controllers of transport of substances through the cell
membrane pores.
Two types of proteins occur:
Integral proteins that protrude all the way through the membrane,
Peripheral proteins that are attached only to one surface of the
membrane and do not penetrate all the way through.

The Integral Proteins Functions:

1.

2.

3.

4.

channels or pores : permit passage of

materials such as water or ions;
Carrier enzymes or transporters that also
help substances enter the cell.
Antigens, with oligosaccharides on their outer
surface, are, markers that identify the cells of
an individual as self.
Receptor sites for hormones.

Membrane CarbohydratesThe Cell

Glycocalyx.

Glycocalyx: loose carbohydrate coat entire outside surface of the cell.

Almost invariably in combination with proteins or lipids in the form of
glycoproteins or glycolipids.
Most of the integral proteins are glycoproteins,
One tenth of the membrane lipid molecules are glycolipids.
Almost invariably protrude to the outside of the cell, dangling outward
from the cell surface.
Many other carbohydrate compounds, called proteoglycanswhich are
mainly carbohydrate substances bound to small protein coresare
loosely attached to the outer surface of the cell as well.

Membrane CarbohydratesThe Cell Glycocalyx.

The carbohydrate moieties attached to the outer surface of the cell

have several important functions:
(1) Many of them have a negative electrical charge, which gives
most cells an overall negative surface charge that repels other
negative objects.
(2) The glycocalyx of some cells attaches to the glycocalyx of other
cells, thus attaching cells to one another.
(3) Many of the carbohydrates act as receptor substances for
binding hormones, such as insulin; when bound, this combination
activates attached internal proteins that, in turn, activate a cascade
of intracellular enzymes.
(4) Some carbohydrate moieties enter into immune reactions, as
discussed in Chapter 34.

Cytoplasm and Its Organelles

Cytoplasm is a watery solution of minerals, gases,

organic molecules, and cell organelles that is found
between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
Cytosol :The clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm in
which the particles are dispersed
Dispersed in the cytoplasm are

Neutral fat globules

Glycogen granules
Ribosomes
Secretory vesicles

Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondria
Lysosomes

Endoplasmic reticulum

Network of tubular and flat vesicular

structures in the cytoplasm
Extend from the nuclear membrane to the
cell membrane.
Walls : Lipid bilayer contain large amounts of
proteins
Endoplasmic matrix

Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum

Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum : endoplasmic

reticulum + ribosomes.
Ribosomes : mixture of RNA and proteins

Function to synthesize new protein molecules in the cell.

Agranular Endoplasmic Reticulum

Called the agranular, or smooth, endoplasmic

reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum has no attached
ribosomes.
Functions

Synthesis of lipid substances and for other processes

of the cells promoted by intrareticular enzymes
Steroid hormones
associated with the detoxification of some drugs.

Golgi Apparatus

Membranes agranular endoplasmic reticulum.

It usually is composed of four or more stacked layers of thin,
flat, enclosed vesicles Functions in association with the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Prominent in secretory cells.
Endoplasmic reticulum continually pinch off transport
vesicles (endoplasmic reticulum vesicles,ER vesicles)
fuse with the Golgi apparatus form lysosomes, secretory
vesicles, and other cytoplasmic components.
Synthesized carbohydrates.

Lysosomes

Vesicular organelles that form by breaking off from the Golgi

apparatus and then dispersing throughout the cytoplasm.
an intracellular digestive system that allows the cell to digest
Damaged cellular structures
Food particles that have been ingested by the cell
Unwanted matter such as bacteria.
diameter250 to 750 nanometers
large numbers of small granules 5 to 8 nm
40 different hydrolase (digestive) enzymes.

Peroxisomes

similar physically to lysosomes,

by self-replication (or perhaps by budding off from
the smooth endoplasmic reticulum)
contain oxidases hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
association with catalase,
oxidize many substances that might otherwise be
poisonous to the cell.

SECRETORY VESICLES

secretory vesicles or secretory granule

vesicles store protein proenzymes (enzymes
that are not yet activated)
exocytosis

Mitochondria

Powerhouses
Extract enough energy from the nutrients
Mitochondria are self-replicative, contain DNA.
Varies in

Total number per cell varies (ratusan - ribuan)

Size (200 nm - 1m)
Shape (globular, elongated, brnching, filamentous)

Two lipid bilayerprotein membranes:

an outer membrane :infoldings form shelves oxidative

enzymes are attached.
an inner membrane : matrix

Filament and Tubular Structures

Fibrillar Proteins
Filaments
Tubulin
Centrioles : organize the spindle fibers during cell division.
Mitotic spindle :
primary function of microtubules is to act as a cytoskeleton,
providing rigid physical structures for certain parts of cells.
Cilia and flagella
Microvilli

Nucleus

Every cell in the body has a nucleus, with the

exception of mature erythrocytes.
The control center of the cell.
Contains large quantities of DNA (the genes)
Determine the characteristics of the cells proteins
Intracellular enzymes control cytoplasmic and
nuclear activities.

Nuclear Membrane

nuclear envelope,
Two separate bilayer membranes.
The outer membrane is continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum of the cell cytoplasm,
The space between the two nuclear membranes is
continuous with the space inside the endoplasmic
reticulum.

Nucleoli and Formation of Ribosomes

Nucleoli: one or more highly staining structures called.

The nucleolus : does not have a limiting membrane
an accumulation of RNA and proteins found in
ribosomes.
Enlarged when the cell is actively synthesizing proteins.
Formation of the nucleoli (and of the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm outside the nucleus) begins in the nucleus.
First, specific DNA genes in the chromosomes cause
RNA to be synthesized. Some of this is stored in the
nucleoli, but most of it is transported outward through
the nuclear pores into cytoplasm.

Nucleus Genetic Material

Built from DNA and proteins called histones

coiled together forming a fine network of
threads called chromatin cell division
chromatin replicates more tightly coiled
chromosomes.
Genes :functional subunits of chromosomes.
'one gene, one enzyme' concept.

Endocytosis.

Specialized function of the cell membrane on

the ingestion of very large particles enter the
cell.
Pinocytosis :macromolecules, such as most
protein molecules.
Phagocytosis : involves large particles rather
than molecules.

Digestion of Pinocytotic and

Phagocytic Foreign Substances
Inside the CellFunction of the
Lysosomes

Transport of substances across cell

membranes

Passive

Diffusion

lipid-soluble substances: oxygen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids,

steroids
passing through water-filled channels, or pores in the membrane,
e.g. small water-soluble substances: sodium, potassium, calcium.

Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis

Active

The sodium pump Na+K+