Chapter 12 Defects in wood

The term defect, as applied to wood, refers to any

irregularity or deviation from the qualities that make
wood suitable for a particular purpose.

Growth-related defects are imperfections in the

wood of living trees, which arises from tree growth,
or irregularities of growth.
The defects, which develop in wood after it has
cut, are the result of treatment or foreign organisms.

Deterioration of wood can be brought about:

through mechanical wear,
by decomposition caused by physical agencies,
by chemical decomposition,
by action of foreign biological agencie.
This chapter is concerned primarily with wood deterioration
caused by the biological agents and with the various types of
stains.

Topical highlights:
. Knots
. Deterioration caused by fungi
. Deterioration caused by bacteria
Iv. Deterioration caused by insects
V. Frost injuries
. Grain direction in wood
. Reaction wood
. Pitch defects
. Bark pockets
X. Brashness
. Growth stresses in trees
. Weathering of wood

. Knots /
1. Conception
A knot is a branch base that is embedded in the wood of a tree
trunk or of a larger limb or branch.

2. Structure of knots
The organization of the branch is similar to that in the
main stem, and the tissue systems of the two structures
are interconnected.

3. All kinds of terms of knots

According to the quality of knots
sound knots
unsound knots
living knots
dead knots
loose knots
tight knots
decayed knots
lost knots

 According to the shape of knots

round knots
spike knots
palm-shape knots

ring-shape knots
According to the size of knots
pin knots
small knots
medium knots
large knots

4. Effects of knots on wood value

The presence of knots in lumber or timbers has a
direct relationship to the mechanical behavior of the
member. The knot itself is harder, more dense, often more
resinous, and shrinks in a manner different from that of
the surrounding tissue.
increase the compression strength, hardness, and shear
characteristics of the wood, and decrease the tensioning
and bending strength.
cause uneven wear on the surfaces
give trouble because of the checking with moisture
changes
make difficulty in painting
increase for cutting forces

. Deterioration caused by fungi /

Definition of fungi : Plants or animals?
like a kind of plant in that they can not move, but with no
chlorophyll and can not manufacture their own food
like animal in that they have metabolizing action and cause
wood deterioration, but can not move.
not plants, not animals, but microbes
Three groups of wood inhabiting fungi
wood-destroying fungi
lead wood suffer brown rot or white rot
soft rot
make wood lose strength and become soft
blue-staining fungi
causing discolorations on wood surface and interior
Infection routes
spores
hyphae spread

 Necessary conditions for fungi growth

The growth of a wood-inhabiting fungus depends on:
favorable temperature, 5 - 40oC
a supply of oxygen
an adequate amount of moisture, mc = 20 - 60%
the presence of a suitable food supply
pH of the substrate, pH = 4.5 - 5.5

1. Wood-destroying fungi /
On the basis of physical and chemical changes produced in
wood and the resulting alterations in color of decaying wood,
wood-destroying fungi are classified as:
brown rots- Basidiomycete fungi
white rots-Basidiomycete fungi
soft rots-Ascomycete fungi

2. Characteristics of decayed wood

by wood-destroying fungi
2-1 Color
The incipient stages of decay may be accompanied
by various changes in the natural color of the wood.
These color changes are due to the follows.
the color and concentration of the invading hyphae
a chemical alteration of one or more of the principal
cell wall components
the pigmented materials in the wood
the formation of distinctive coloring substances by
fungi or bacteria

2-2 Odor
The advanced stages of decay may be accompanied
by characteristic odors. These odors are variable in
intensity and character, with those of anise
and wintergreen being quite common. In
some cases these odors may be of diagnostic value. In
most instances they are only a nuisance, but in some
forms of wood utilization they may be quite a serious
problem.
2-3 Water conduction and moisture-holding capacity
Decayed wood absorbs moisture more rapidly and
can hold more water than sound wood.

2-4 Dimensional changes

Wood containing decay in the advanced stages shrinks more
on drying than sound wood. The differences in the rate of
shrinkage are more pronounced in brown rots than in white
rots at a comparable stage of decay.
2-5 Density
Because of destruction of wood substance, wood becomes less
dense as decay progresses.
2-6 Mechanical properties
Wood with the incipient stages of brown rot suffers a
considerable reduction in toughness, and becomes brash.
Wood affected with white rot shows little weakening until the
decay reaches more advanced stages.

2-7 Thermal properties

Dry decayed wood ignites more readily than sound
wood. However, the calorific value of decayed wood is
reduced.
2-8 Resistance to insect attack
Wood containing decay is more readily attacked by
some insects and marine organisms.

3. Molds /
3-1 Appearance of molds
These fungi are characterized by cottony or downy
growth varying in color from white through shades of yellow,
brown-red, purple-blue, and green to black.
3-2 Developing conditions
Mild temperatures, an abundant supply of moisture, and still
air, such as results from poor ventilation, favor their
development.
3-3 Effects on wood
Molds apparently do not affect the strength properties of wood.
Heavy mold infection increases the permeability of wood due to
the partial or complete breakdown of the ray parenchyma cells.
Mold growth causes serious contamination of wood.

3-4 Control measures

In air seasoning, molding can be controlled by adequate

circulation of air.

Molds on wood can be destroyed by steaming it at 170

and 100 percent humidity for about 1 hour.

Dipping and spraying freshly cut stock in a chemical

solution such as sodium pentachlorophenate
or ethyl mercury phosphate are also
effective in preventing mold infection.

4. Sap stain /
4-1 Conception

Discolorations in wood caused by fungi are by far the most

important types of stains from the economic point of view.
Since the activity of this class of fungi is almost exclusively
confined to the sapwood, the resulting discolorations are
called sap stains and the fungi causing them sap-stain fungi.

4-2 Differences of sap-stain fungi from wood destroying fungi

They do not decompose the wood substance.

Their hyphae are usually much larger.

They do not make boreholes on the cell walls with enzyme.

They penetrate from cell to cell mostly by passing through
the pits in the walls, in contrast to those of wood-decaying
fungus. In cases when hyphae of a stain fungus penetrate
directly through the cell wall, the boreholes are extremely
minute, several times narrower than the normal width of the
hyphae. Another significant point of difference between these
two classes of fungi is that perforation by stain fungi takes
place mostly mechanically, without prior enzymatic action as
is the case with the wood-destroying kinds.

4-3 Effects of sap-stain

Do not decrease mechanical strength seriously.
Contaminate wood surface and inside seriously.
Increase the permeability of wood significantly.
4-4 Control measures
storing logs under water or under continuous water spray
dipping or spraying with a fungicide-insecticide solution
rapid drying the lumber to reduce to the moisture content of
the surface below the fiber saturation point before the spores
can germinate

. Deterioration caused by bacteria

Although bacterial deterioration of wood is less obvious
than that caused by fungi, it has been recognized for some
time that bacteria, alone or interacting with fungi, may
play an important role, by causing changes in
characteristics of wood in its natural state and when
placed in service. These changes may be economically
beneficial or detrimental, depending on the particular use
of the affected wood.

. Deterioration caused by insects

From the standpoint of wood utilization the insects that
damage wood can be segregated roughly into those whose attacks
are confined to wood before it is utilized and those whose damage
is mainly restricted to wood in service. Pith flecks,
pinholes, and grubholes result from
the activities of insects belonging to the first category; powderpost beetles and termites are the most important examples of
insects that attack converted wood.

1. Insect damage in wood before it is utilized

1-1 Pith flecks
Pith flecks, or medullary spots, are confined to
hardwoods. On transverse surfaces they appear as small
areas of wound tissue which are usually darker than the
surrounding tissue and are wholly within the limits of a
growth ring. his defect results from injury to the cambium
by the larvae of flies.
1-2 Pinholes
Pinholes are small round, and usually opened holes of
1/100 to inch in diameter, resulting from the mining of
ambrosia beetles.
1-3 Grub holes
Insect mines, exceeding inch in diameter are generally
called grub holes.

2. Insect damage to wood in service

2-1 Powder--post beetle damage /
Phenomenon
Powder-post injury is practically limited to air-seasoned and
kiln-dried lumber, though cases are on record where these
beetles have invaded wood containing as much as 40 percent
moisture.
The term powder-post beetles was applied to these insects
because the larvae bore through the wood and leave residual
wood substance in a finely pulverized condition; the flour-like
residue sifts out from the tunnels when the adults emerge
during late spring and summer, leaving holes 1/16 to 1/12
inch in diameter. The interior of the wood may be riddled
with tunnels, with little visual evidence on the outside of the
piece to indicate the extent of destruction.

 Control measures
Long-time storing logs to reduce the reserves of starch
in parenchyma
Heat sterilizing the lumber by steaming or drying at
high temperature
Coating thoroughly all the surfaces of wood products
to seal the pores

2-2 Common furniture beetles /

In spite of the name, the attack of this beetle (Anobium
sp.) is not confined to furniture but extends to structural
timber, plywood, and other types of seasoned wood
products. Because of the size of the escape holes, the
damage is frequently mistaken for that caused by powderpost beetles().
The same remedial treatment used in preventing
powder-post-beetle damage is applicable for control of
common-furniture-beetle infestations.

2-3 Termites /
Phenomenon
Termites have a worldwide distribution through the
tropical and temperate zones. They attack all species of
wood, either sapwood or heartwood, and will infest
sound or decayed wood. All termites use cellulose and
other carbohydrates in the wood for food. Some species
of termites found in the United States convert cellulose
into a digestible form by the action of protozoa and
bacteria inhabiting their intestinal tracts.

 Three groups of termites

the subterranean termites
the dry-wood termites
the wet-wood termites
Control measures
removal of all tree roots, stumps, and wood debris from the
building site;
provision for adequate soil drainage beneath and around the
building;
chemical treatment of the soil under the building and around
the foundation;
adequate ventilation under the building;
keeping all wood in the building at least 8 inches from the
ground;
making all foundations as impervious to termites as possible;
use of pressure-treated lumber, especially in the foundations.

3. Defects resulting from the activities

of marine borers
Marine borers are animals belonging to the Mollusca
(molluscs) and the Crustacea (crustaceans). These organisms
inhabit salt and brackish water and inflict extensive damage
of submerged wooden structures as well as to wood exposed
at low tide.
Control of marine borers is difficult. Many methods of
protecting wood have been tried with varying degrees of
success. The best results, so far, have been attained by
thorough pressure impregnation of the wood with coal tar
creosote and other suitable nonleaching preservatives.

. Frost injuries /
Two types of defects develop in wood of living trees,
supposedly as the result of freezing temperatures. These are
known as frost rings() and frost cracks().
1. Frost rings
Conception
Frost rings appear to the naked eye as brownish lines within
and parallel to the boundaries of growth rings; their general
appearance simulates false rings. These zones of
discoloration result from frost injury to the cambium and
the immature xylem cells, after the cambium has become
active in the spring, and before it becomes dormant in the
autumn.
Effects
There is collapse and distortion of cells that were
immature at the time the freezing occurred
Parenchyma appears in abnormal amounts
The rays are wider at that point than normal.

2. Frost cracks
Conception
Frost cracks develop as radial splits in the wood and bark
near the base of the tree. They are found in all species
growing in cold climates but are most frequent in
hardwoods. Frost cracks are most common in old trees
with stout primary roots and broad crowns and are
absent in very young trees.
Formation
One theory claims that when a tree is exposed to very
low temperatures, the low heat conductivity of wood
causes the outer region of the trunk to contract before the
center of the trunk is affected by the temperature change.
This differential shrinkage sets up a tensile stress on the
outside of the trunk and results in radial cracks.

Another theory considers that the mechanical action of

wind on the frozen wood is the most important factor in
frost-crack formation.

Wetwood has also been advanced as the principal cause

of frost-crack formation.

. Grain direction in wood

Any form of deviation from the straight-grained condition
is considered to be a defect in structural lumber because of
the reduction of strength in the member in which it occurs.
On the other hand, irregular forms of grain orientation,
such as curly, wavy, and interlocked, may be an advantage
when wood with such grain is used for decorative purposes
because of its distinctive figure.

1. Terms for grain direction in wood

1-1 Spiral grain /
This term is applied to the helical orientation of the fibers in a
tree stem, which gives a twisted appearance to the trunk after
the bark has been removed.

1-2 Interlocked grain /

A regular reversal of right and left spirality in a tree stem
produces the condition known as interlocked grain .

1-3 Diagonal grain /

When stock is sawn so that the grain of the wood intersects
the surface at an angle, the piece has diagonal grain.
The principal cause of diagonal grain is the practice of sawing
lumber parallel to the pith. This defect can easily be eliminated
in straight logs by sawing parallel to the bark surface.
Diagonal grain can also originate from crooked logs, sawing
irregular pieces from straight-grained stock, or resawing and
ripping straight-grained material at an angle to the long axis.

1-4 Cross grain /

Grain deviations in the flat-sawn faces of boards or
timbers, resulting from spiral grain in the tree, crook
and sweep in the log, or localized grain disturbance
around large knots.
Grain deviation may be due to the manner of
sawing lumber (diagonal grain). In sawn material,
all these types of grain deviation appear the same and
are simply designated as cross grain, regardless of
the true origin of such grain. The term spiral grain
should be limited in its application to grain direction
in tree stems, logs, and poles.

2. Determination of grain direction

Ways to determine the direction of the grain in wood:
Splitting the wood piece
observing the orientation of resin canals or vessels on the
wood piece
observing the seasoning checks on the tangential face
observing the growth-increment boundaries on the radial

. Reaction wood /
A reaction is a response to a triggering event.
Reaction wood was appropriately named. This special
kind of wood may be formed if the main stem of a tree
is tipped from the vertical. It can also arise following
the deflection of a lateral stem (or branch) from its
normal orientation.
Reaction wood formed in hardwoods differs from
that formed in softwoods. In softwoods, it is termed
compression wood and in hardwoods,
tension wood.
In both, however, the function of reaction wood is the
same: to bring the stem or branch back to the original
position. The formation mechanisms is still a mystery.

1. Conception
Compression wood
formed in softwood, on the under compression side of leaned steam
Tension wood
formed in hardwood, on the up tension side of tipped steam
2.

Differences from normal wood in properties of compression wood

Tracheids 30% shorter;
Cellulose 10% less, hemicelluloses and lignin 8-9%more;
Longitudinal shrinkage 10 times higher;
Wood density much higher;
Microfibril angle in S2 layer much larger, going to 45o.

3. Differences from normal wood in

properties of tension wood
Cellulose content much higher;
Wood density much higher;
No S3 layer, but with a G-layer,
and so causing fuzzy surface;
Longitudinal shrinkage much
higher, going to 1%;
Collapse during wood drying
much more severe.

. Pitch defects /
1. Formation
A number of pitch defects are found in softwoods in
which resin canals are normal in the wood. These defects
develop through the accumulation of resin in excessive
amounts in localized regions of the wood.
2.

Types
pitch: in irregular shape
pitch streak: sharply outlined in a line
Pitch pocket: planoconvex cavities, usually confined within
the boundaries of a single growth increment.

. Bark pockets /
These are small patches of bark that are embedded in
wood. They apparently develop from some injury to the tree,
resulting in the death of a small area of the cambium.

X. Brashness /
Brashness is an abnormal condition that causes wood to
break suddenly and completely across the grain at stress
levels lower than expected.
The surfaces of a brash break are relatively smooth and
show the structure of the wood in cross section quite
cleanly. In contrast, the normal type of failure results in a
more jagged surface.
The most objectionable feature of brash wood is the
sudden failure without previous warning, especially when
shock-loaded.

. Growth stresses in trees

Growth stresses are present in most trees as a

result of normal development of woody tissue. But
in some tree species, e.g., eucalyptus, growth stress
can go to very high level and cause serious
problems during wood processing.
1.

Phenomenon of growth stress

log sawing, vegetable stalk splitting.

2. Effects of growth stress

Growth stresses are a primary cause for shakes, brittle
heart, and compression failure in standing trees and felled
logs. The growth stresses also cause spring of sawn-wood
products, i.e., bowing and crooking of pieces as they are sawn
from the log.
3. Formation mechanism of growth stress
Growth stresses arise from a deposition and
polymerization of lignin within the secondary wall during the
maturation of fibrous cells. The addition of lignin causes a
small lateral expansion of the cross section of the fiber and a
corresponding reduction in length according to Poisson's
ratio. The shrinkage in length of each cell is small, but the
cumulative effect is sufficient to produce considerable tensile
stress longitudinally on the outside the woody cylinder of the
trunk.

4. Distribution of growth stress

Growth stresses are a maximum in tension at the surface
of the log, and from here decrease inward to zero at about
one-quarter of the radial distance to the pith. From this
point inward to the pith the stresses are compressive in
nature and increase in magnitude to a maximum at the pith.
Distribution pattern:

Pith side
Compressive stress

Bark side
Tensile stress

5. Reduction of growth stresses

by preventing growth of the tree in season prior to felling.
by applying steel strapping at each side of the intended
location of a crosscut which is be made for either felling
or bucking
by storage of logs in ponds or under water spray for months

. Weathering of wood /
When wood, unprotected by paint or any other means, is exposed to
the weather, its surface undergoes changes, in part physical and in part
chemical, the cumulative effects of which are termed weathering.
The first indication of weathering is change in color. Initially, the
dark-colored woods tend to fade and the light-colored varieties to
darken somewhat. However, as the weathering continues, all woods
assume a silvery-gray color, with the gray layer extending 0.003 to
0.001 inch in depth. In humid climates the final appearance of
weathered surfaces may be further modified by the surface growth of
spores and mycelia of fungi, resulting in unsightly, blotchy
discolorations, usually dark gray in color. At this stage the process of
weathering is mainly photo-oxidative in nature. The surface
appearance is greatly affected by the wavelength of light, with the
ultraviolet light being most destructive, resulting in degradation of
lignin and extractives, followed by removal of the extractive materials
by the action of atmospheric moisture. As a result, the partially
loosened wood fibers in the gray layer consist mostly of the more leachresistant fractions of cellulose.

Since wood is hygroscopic in nature, its unprotected

surface tends to absorb moisture and to swell during humid
and rainy weather, and to lose moisture and shrink in periods
of dry weather. This, coupled with the differential shrinkage of
early and late woods, leads to formation of raised grain.
Owing to the slow rate of moisture transfusion through wood,
these changes in moisture content, and hence wood
dimensions, are for the most part confined to the surface
layers. The alternate compression and tension stresses set up
in the shell of a piece of wood eventually result in formation of
microscopic checks on the exposed surface.

If weathering is permitted to proceed further, the surface

will develop larger and deeper checks, which become visible.
This, combined with the abrasive effect of rain, hail, windborne particles, and freezing and thawing, causes the wearing
away of surface layers and a roughened appearance of the
surface. The differential dimensional changes between the
surface and the interior of a board, combined with the surface
abrasion, frequently lead to warping of weathered boards and
the loosening of fasteners. Warping is more pronounced in the
denser woods and in wide boards, the width of which exceeds
their thickness by more than eight times.

The effect of normal weathering may be accelerated by

polluted atmosphere containing sulfur dioxide, which may
be responsible for partial hydrolysis of cellulose and
disintegration of lignin. Surface molds may also contribute
to weathering. Finally, it should be noted that the surface
conditions commonly attributed to nonbiological weathering
may in fact be due to the attack of soft-rot fungi.
In the case of the more popular species used for siding
e.g., redwood, western redcedar, or baldcypress, more
uniformly attractive, weathered surfaces can be achieved by
treating the exposed surfaces with a water-repellant
preservative, which tends to retard leaching of wood
extractives and formation of mildew on the surface.
Weathered surfaces of wood have poor adhesion for
finishing materials and should be carefully sanded before
paint or other finishes are applied.

Reflection and practice:

1. Effects of knots on wood properties?

2. The main groups of wood fungi and their harm to

wood?
3. The necessary conditions for fungi to grow on wood?
4. Principles of wood preservation?

5. Conceptions of reaction wood , compression wood,

and tension wood?
6. Formation Mechanism of growth stress?
7. Distribution pattern of growth stress?