Chapter 3: The Cell

Cell theory?

2 Types of Cells
Sex Cells
Somatic Cells
Sex cells (germ cells):
reproductive cells
male sperm
female oocytes (eggs)

Somatic cells (soma

= body):
all body cells except
sex cells

Difference?

Organelle Functions

Organelle Functions

What are the structures and

functions of the cell membrane?

Components of the Cell Membrane

Contains lipids, carbohydrates, and functional proteins

Phospholipid Bilayer
Double layer of phospholipid molecules:
hydrophilic headstoward watery environment,
both sides
hydrophobic fatty-acid tailsinside membrane
barrier to ions and water soluble compounds

Membrane Proteins

Integral proteins:
within the membrane

Peripheral proteins:
inner or outer surface of the membrane

6 Functions of Membrane Proteins

1. Anchoring proteins (stabilizers):
attach to inside or outside structures
2. Recognition proteins (identifiers):
label cells normal or abnormal
3. Enzymes:
catalyze reactions
4. Receptor proteins:

bind and respond to ligands (ions, hormones)

5. Carrier proteins:
transport specific solutes through membrane
6. Channels:
regulate water flow and solutes through membrane

Membrane Carbohydrates
Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids:
extend outside cell membrane
form sticky sugar coat (glycocalyx)

Functions of Membrane Carbohydrates

Lubrication and protection
Anchoring and locomotion
Specificity in binding (receptors)
Recognition (immune response)

Cytoplasm
All materials inside the cell and outside the
nucleus:
cytosol (fluid):
dissolved materials:
nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products

organelles:
structures with specific functions

What are cell organelles & their functions?

Types of Organelles
Nonmembranous organelles:
Do not possess a membrane
In direct contact with cytosol

Membranous organelles:
covered with plasma membrane
isolated from cytosol

6 types of nonmembranous organelles:

cytoskeleton
microvilli
centrioles

cilia
ribosomes
proteasomes

The Cytoskeleton

Structural proteins for shape and

strength
3 types (microfilaments,
intermediate, and Microtubules
Microfilaments
Thin filaments composed of the
protein actin:
provide additional mechanical strength
Pairs with thick filaments of myosin for
muscle movement

Intermediate
Mid-sized
durable (collagen)
strengthen cell and maintain shape
stabilize organelles
stabilize cell position

Microtubules
Large, hollow tubes of
tubulin protein:
attach to centrosome
strengthen cell and anchor
organelles
change cell shape
move vesicles within cell
form spindle apparatus

Microvilli
Increase surface area for absorption
Attach to cytoskeleton

Centrioles in the Centrosome

Centrioles form spindle
apparatus during cell
division
Centrosome: cytoplasm
surrounding centriole

Cilia
Cilia move fluids across the
cell surface

Ribosomes
Build polypeptides in protein
synthesis
Two types:
free ribosomes in cytoplasm:
proteins for cell

fixed ribosomes attached to

ER:
proteins for secretion

Proteasomes
Contain enzymes (proteases)
Disassemble damaged proteins for recycling

Membranous Organelles
6 membranous organelles:
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
golgi apparatus
lysosomes
peroxisomes
mitochondria
nucleus

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

endo = within, plasm = cytoplasm, reticulum = network
Cisternae are storage chambers within membranes
2 types

Functions of ER
Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
Storage of synthesized molecules and materials
Transport of materials within the ER
Detoxification of drugs or toxins

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

No ribosomes attached
Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates:
phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes)
steroid hormones (reproductive system)
glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells)
glycogen (storage in muscles)

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Surface covered with ribosomes:
active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis
folds polypeptides protein structures
encloses products in transport vesicles

Golgi Apparatus
Vesicles enter forming face and exit maturing face
Secretory vesicles:
modify and package products
for exocytosis

Membrane renewal
vesicles:
add or remove membrane
components

Transport vesicles:
Carry materials to and
from Golgi apparatus

Lysosomes
Powerful enzymecontaining vesicles:
lyso = dissolve,
soma = body

Exocytosis

Primary lysosome:
formed by Golgi
and inactive
enzymes
Secondary
lysosome:
lysosome fused
with damaged
organelle
digestive
enzymes
activated
toxic chemicals
isolated

Ejects secretory products and wastes

Lysosome Functions
Clean up inside cells:
break down large molecules
attack bacteria
recycle damaged organelles
ejects wastes by exocytosis

Self-destruction of damaged cells (Autolysis):

auto = self, lysis = break
lysosome membranes break down
digestive enzymes released
cell decomposes
cellular materials recycle

Peroxisomes
Are enzyme-containing vesicles:
break down fatty acids, organic compounds
produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
replicate by division

Mitochondria
Structure

Have smooth outer membrane and folded inner

membrane (cristae) - form walls or rooms
Matrix:
fluid around cristae
Figure 39a

Mitochondrial Function
takes chemical energy from food (glucose)
produces energy molecule ATP (Aerobic
metabolism)

Figure 39b

Nucleus
Is the cells control center
- largest organelle
Nuclear envelope:
double membrane
around the nucleus

Nuclear pores:
communication
passages

Within the Nucleus

DNA:
all information to build and run organisms

Nucleoplasm:
fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides,
and some RNA

Nuclear matrix:
support filaments

Nucleoli in Nucleus
Are related to protein production
Are made of RNA, enzymes, and histones
Synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits

KEY CONCEPT
Cells: basic structural and functional
units of life
respond to their environment
maintain homeostasis at the cellular level
modify structure and function over time

Organization of DNA
Nucleosomes:
DNA coiled around
histones

Chromatin:
loosely coiled DNA
(cells not dividing)

Chromosomes:
tightly coiled DNA
(cells dividing)

Figure 311

What is genetic code?

DNA and Genes
DNA:
instructions for every protein in the body

Gene:
The instructions for making a single protein

Genetic Code
The chemical language of DNA instructions:
sequence of bases (A, T, C, G)
triplet code:
3 bases = 1 amino acid

KEY CONCEPT
The nucleus contains chromosomes
Chromosomes contain DNA
DNA stores genetic instructions for
proteins
Proteins determine cell structure and
function

How do DNA instructions become proteins?

Protein Synthesis
Transcription:
copies instructions from DNA to mRNA (in nucleus)

Translation:
ribosome reads code from mRNA (in cytoplasm)
assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain

Processing:
by RER and Golgi apparatus produces protein

problem
- DNA contains genetic template" for
proteins.
- DNA is found in the nucleus
- Protein synthesis occurs in the
cytoplasm - ribosome.
- "Genetic information" must be
transferred to the cytoplasm where
proteins are synthesized.

Processes of Protein Synthesis

Transcription - genetic template for
a protein is copied and carried out
to the cytoplasm
Translation - template serves as a
series of codes for the amino acid
sequence of the protein

Steps of Transcription
1. DNA unwinds
2. One side of DNA "codes for a
protein"
3. Genetic code of DNA is a triplet
code of 3 nucleotides or bases
4. Each triplet is specific for the
coding of a single amino acid

A view of transcription
Fig. 14.12 Brum

Transcription (cont.)
5.

6.
7.

8.

Sequence of triplet codes on DNA will

specify the amino acid sequence on the
protein
Major step is the synthesis of the coded
"messenger" molecule - mRNA
mRNA is "transcribed" from DNA by
complementary base pairing (mRNA has
no thymine, which is replaced by uracil)
mRNA passes out to cytoplasm to the
ribosome

fig. 15.5 from Raven

Steps in Translation
1. mRNA attaches to the ribosome
2. tRNA's attach to free amino acids
in the cytoplasmic "pool" of amino
acids
3. tRNA carries its specific amino
acid to the ribosome

fig. 15.5 from Raven

Translation (cont.)
4. tRNA "delivers" its amino acid based on
complementary pairing of a triplet code
(anticodon) with the triplet code (codon) of
the mRNA.
5. Enzyme "hooks" the amino acid to the last
one in the chain forming a peptide bond.
6. Protein chain continues to grow as each
tRNA brings in its amino acid and adds it
to the chain. - This is translation!!

fig. 15.5 from Raven

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
U C G UU C A A A

mRNA

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
U C G UU C A A A

Nucleus

mRNA
Cytoplasm

Ribosome

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
U C G UU C A A A

Nucleus

mRNA
Cytoplasm

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT

Nucleus

AA1

Cytoplasm

tRNAs

AGC

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT

Nucleus
ATP
AA1

AA2

Cytoplasm

tRNAs

AGC AAG

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
AA1

Nucleus
ATP
AA1

AA2

AA3

Cytoplasm

AAG U U U

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
AA1

Nucleus

AGC
AA1

AA2

AA3

Cytoplasm

AAG U U U

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
AA1

Nucleus

AGC
AA1

AA2

AA3

Cytoplasm

AAG U U U

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
AA1

Nucleus

AGC
AA1

AA2

AA3

Cytoplasm

UUU

U C G UU C A A A