UNDERWATER CONSTRUCTION

Construction Below the Water Table

Exclude the water

Lower the water table
Solidify the ground
Ignore the water

Exclude the Water

Caissons usually refers to structures which are
constructed offsite and then brought to site in one
piece or in a series of independent modules.
Cofferdams usually refers to structures in water that
are constructed on site, often from standard parts.
Design to keep water and/or soil out of the
excavation.

Box Caissons

(a) Box caisson floated into place with ballast as required.

(b) Caisson filled with appropriate material water may be

pumped out first.

Hollow caissons can be used to house equipment filled
they can be used as foundations.

http://www.skye-bridge.co.uk/caisson.htm

Open Caissons
Open caissons permit

excavation or other
work to be carried out
inside the caisson.
The caisson will sink
down into the soil as
excavation proceeds.
Sections can be added
on top to increase
height.
Water can be pumped
out to permit dry work.

Pneumatic /Compressed Air Caisson

Pneumatic Caissons can be

sunk with the aid of

compressed air.
Provides a dry working
chamber.
Regulations apply
Volume air supply
Caisson sickness
Structural integrity
Man management

Simple cofferdam
Cut off walls sunk into low

permeability material
Sheet piles

Contiguous bored piles

Usually steel interlocking

http://www.landwater.co.uk/UserFiles/ima
ges/Case%20studies/031
10BeverleyBeckv2.pdf
Problems with seals at
joints

Vibrated beam wall

Vibrate H pile into

ground and inject grout
as pile removed usually
permanent.
System can be used for construction

Pump water from sump.

below water table on land or in rivers

etc.

Cofferdam with de-watering wells

Can lower water table

by sinking wells and

pumping water (at a
rate faster than the reentry rate) to a suitable
location. Must consider
silt content etc. of
pumped water and
effect on ground water
flow.

Sealed Cofferdam
Completely sealed

system.
Must cater for upthrust.
Only direct rainfall
needs to be pumped
out.
Horizontal barrier can
be concrete, clay,
ground freezing etc.

Lower the Water Table

Effectively confined to land sites
with low permeability soils
to lower water table slightly over large area
Sink a series of wells
generally on a grid pattern.
Pump water from wells
Ground water will flow towards excavation
Consider environmental effect of pumped
water.

Solidify Ground - then dig it out (Not

common not easy to control)
Freeze the water.
Requires a lot of energy.
Soil mass expands
can cause damage
changes properties of soil mass

Cement grouting
Cement reacts with water
Permanently changes properties of soil mass
Generally used as ground strengthening
Other chemical reactants

Ignore the Water

For processes that can be carried out

underwater.

Welding
Concreting
Assembly work
Inspections

Divers

Remote controlled equipment

Remote handling

Casting Concrete Under Water

Concrete will set under water.

Need to protect wet paste from strong

currents.
Concrete at surface contaminated by sea or
river water & cement leaches out.
Need to keep mass of concrete intact &
minimise new surface area as it is placed.

Techniques for concreting under water

Use pre-cast concrete units and lower into

place

Light enough to place

Heavy enough to stay in place or anchor

Place wet concrete inside sacrificial bag

Use a hopper with a bottom gate & skirt
Use tremie pipe or flexible hose

Hopper & skirt

Fresh concrete placed

in skip
Skip lowered to sea bed
Gate opened
Skip raised slowly
Concrete protected by
skirt as flows onto sea
bed
Sea bed
OK for mass fill

Fresh concrete

hopper
skirt

Hinged or sliding gate

Tremie Pipe (not to scale)

for small quantities only
Crumpled paper used to

block tube initially

Fresh concrete placed
within existing mass
Formwork required can
be pre-cast units
Scour may be a problem
Cofferdams can provide
protection
Can use flexible hose &
pumped concrete

Fresh concrete
in hopper

Water level

Sea bed level

Things to Remember about Concrete

Designs based on 28 day strength

No load until 7 days (approx)

Hardens quickly but strength remains low
Is subject to sulphate attack

Sulphates found in some clay soils

Health & safety issues to be considered

Allergy common & can be developed

Demolition must be considered