The Atom and Unanswered Questions

Section 5-1

Recall that in Rutherford's model, the

atoms mass is concentrated in the nucleus
and electrons move around it.
The model doesnt explain how the electrons
were arranged around the nucleus.
The model doesnt explain why negatively
charged electrons arent pulled into the
positively charged nucleus.

The Atom and Unanswered Questions

Section 5-1
In the early 1900s, scientists observed
certain elements emitted visible light when
heated in a flame.

The Wave Nature of Light

Section 5-1

Visible light is a type of electromagnetic

radiation, a form of energy that exhibits
wave-like behavior as it travels through
space.
All waves can be described by several
characteristics.

The Wave Nature of Light (cont.)

Section 5-1

The wavelength () is the shortest

distance between equivalent points on a
continuous wave.
The frequency () is the number of waves
that pass a given point per second.
The amplitude is the waves height from the
origin to a crest.

The Wave Nature of Light (cont.)

Section 5-1

The Wave Nature of Light (cont.)

Section 5-1

The speed of light (3.00 108 m/s) is the

product of its wavelength and frequency
c = .

The Wave Nature of Light (cont.)

Section 5-1
Sunlight contains a continuous range of
wavelengths and frequencies.

A prism separates sunlight into a continuous

spectrum of colors.
The electromagnetic spectrum includes all
forms of electromagnetic radiation.

The Wave Nature of Light (cont.)

Section 5-1

The Particle Nature of Light

Section 5-1

The wave model of light cannot explain all

of lights characteristics.

Matter can gain or lose energy only in small,

specific amounts called quanta.
A quantum is the minimum amount of energy
that can be gained or lost by an atom.
Plancks constant has a value of
6.626 1034 J s.

The Particle Nature of Light (cont.)

Section 5-1
The photoelectric effect is when electrons
are emitted from a metals surface when
light of a certain frequency shines on it.

The Particle Nature of Light (cont.)

Section 5-1
Albert Einstein proposed in 1905 that light
has a dual nature.

A beam of light has wavelike and particlelike

properties.
A photon is a particle of electromagnetic
radiation with no mass that carries a quantum
of energy.
Ephoton = h

Ephoton represents energy.

h is Planck's constant.
represents frequency.

Atomic Emission Spectra (cont.)

Section 5-1

Atomic Emission Spectra (cont.)

Section 5-1
The atomic emission spectrum of an
element is the set of frequencies of the
electromagnetic waves emitted by the
atoms of the element.
Each elements atomic emission spectrum is
unique.

Bohrs Model Of The Atom

Electrons move around the nucleus in
fixed paths or orbits much like the
planets move around the sun
Orbit positions, labeled with the integer
n, have specific potential energy
The lowest energy state of an atom is
called the ground state (an electron with
n = 1 for a hydrogen atom)

Atomic Emission Spectra

The excited atoms emit light to release

energy.

Absorption And Emission

Electrons that
absorb energy are
raised to a higher
energy level
A particular
frequency of light is
emitted when an
electron falls to a
lower energy level
16

Bohr's Model of the Atom

Bohr correctly predicted the frequency lines
in hydrogens atomic emission spectrum.

The lowest allowable energy state of an atom

is called its ground state.
When an atom gains energy, it is in an
excited state.

Bohr's Model of the Atom (cont.)

Bohr suggested that an electron moves
around the nucleus only in certain allowed
circular orbits.

Bohr's Model of the Atom (cont.)

Each orbit was given a number, called the
quantum number.

Bohr's Model of the Atom (cont.)

Hydrogens single electron is in the n = 1
orbit in the ground state.

When energy is added, the electron moves to

the n = 2 orbit.

Bohr's Model of the Atom (cont.)

Bohrs model explained the hydrogens
spectral lines, but failed to explain any
other elements lines.
The behavior of electrons is still not fully
understood, but it is known they do not move
around the nucleus in circular orbits.

Wavelike properties of electrons help relate atomic

emission spectra, energy states of atoms, and
atomic orbitals.

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

Louis de Broglie (18921987)
hypothesized that particles, including
electrons, could also have wavelike
behaviors.

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

(cont.)

The figure illustrates that electrons orbit the

nucleus only in whole-number
wavelengths.

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

(cont.)

The de Broglie equation predicts that all

moving particles have wave characteristics.
represents wavelengths
h is Planck's constant.
m represents mass of the particle.
represents frequency.

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

(cont.)

Heisenberg showed it is impossible to take

any measurement of an object without
disturbing it.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
states that it is fundamentally impossible to
know precisely both the velocity and position
of a particle at the same time.
The only quantity that can be known is the
probability for an electron to occupy a certain
region around the nucleus.

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

(cont.)

Schrdinger treated electrons as waves in

a model called the quantum mechanical
model of the atom.
Schrdingers equation applied equally well to
elements other than hydrogen.

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

(cont.)

The wave function predicts a threedimensional region around the nucleus

called the atomic orbital.

Hydrogen Atomic Orbitals

Principal quantum number (n) indicates
the relative size and energy of atomic
orbitals.
n specifies the atoms major energy levels,
called the principal energy levels.

Quantum Numbers
Are a shorthand to describe characteristics
of an electrons position and to predict its
behavior
n = principal quantum number. All
orbitals with the same principle quantum
number are in the same shell
l = secondary quantum number which
divides the orbitals in a shell into smaller
groups called subshells
ml = magnetic quantum number which
divides the subshells into individual
30
orbitals

Quantum Numbers: What Do They Mean?

n = roughly describes a distance of the
electrons from the nucleus.
designated by integers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

l = describes the shape of the orbitals.

designated with numbers : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
or with letters:
s, p, d, f, g, h

ml =describes the spatial orientation of the

orbital.
designated by numbers specific to the
particular orbital
range from l to +l

s Orbitals And Nodes

Orbitals get larger as the principle quantum
number n increases
Nodes, or regions of zero electron density,
appear beginning with the 2s orbital
.

p Orbitals
Possess a nodal plane that separates the
lobes of high probability
Dot-density diagrams of the cross section
of the probability distribution of a single (a)
2p and (b) 3p orbital showing the nodal
plane and the size difference

Hydrogen Atomic Orbitals (cont.)

Each energy sublevel relates to orbitals of
different shape.

Hydrogen Atomic Orbitals (cont.)

Ground-State Electron Configuration

The arrangement of electrons in the atom
is called the electron configuration.

The aufbau principle states that each

electron occupies the lowest energy orbital
available.

Electrons Behave Like Tiny Magnets

Electrons within
atoms interact with a
magnet field in one of
two ways:
clockwise (spin up)
anti-clockwise (spin
down)

This gives rise to the

spin quantum
number, ms
allowed values: + 1/2
or 1/2

Ground-State Electron Configuration

Section 5-3

(cont.)

Ground-State Electron Configuration

Section 5-3

(cont.)

The Pauli exclusion principle states that

a maximum of two electrons can occupy a
single orbital, but only if the electrons have
opposite spins.
Hunds rule states that
single electrons with the
same spin must occupy each
equal-energy orbital before
additional electrons with
opposite spins can occupy
the same energy level
orbitals.

Ground-State Electron Configuration (cont.)

Ground-State Electron Configuration (cont.)

Noble gas notation uses noble gas
symbols in brackets to shorten inner
electron configurations of other elements.

Ground-State Electron Configuration

(cont.)

Section 5-3
The electron configurations (for chromium,
copper, and several other elements) reflect
the increased stability of half-filled and
filled sets of s and d orbitals.

Valence Electrons

Section 5-3
Valence electrons are defined as
electrons in the atoms outermost orbitals
those associated with the atoms highest
principal energy level.
Electron-dot structure consists of the
elements symbol representing the nucleus,
surrounded by dots representing the
elements valence electrons.

Valence Electrons (cont.)

Section 5-3