CONSOLIDATION OF

SOIL
AND
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
Submitted to: Dr. J.N JHA
Submitted by: Harpreet Singh
Roll no : 1308

University Roll no: 1312121

What is Consolidation
Consolidation is a process by which soils decrees in volume.

According to Karl Terzaghi "consolidation is any process which involves decrease

in water content of a saturated soil without replacement of water by air.
Reduction in volume takes place by expulsion of water under long term static
loads. It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil particles to
pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk volume.
When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed
out of the soil.

Cause and Stages of consolidation

Cause of consolidation
1. Lowering of the ground water table.
2. External static loads from structures.
3. Self weight of recently placed soils.
Stages of consolidation
1. Initial consolidation.
2. Primary consolidation.
3. Secondary Consolidation.

Initial consolidation(si)
When a load is applied to a partially saturated soil, a decrease in volume occurs
due to expulsion and compression of air in the voids.

A small decrease in volume also occurs due to compression of solid particles .

The reduction in volume of the soil just after the application of the load is known
as initial consolidation.

Primary consolidation(sc)
After initial consolidation, further reduction in volume of soil mass occurs due to
expulsion of water from voids. This is known as primary consolidation.

In fine grain soils, the primary consolidation occurs, over a long time.
On the other hand, in coarse grained soils , the primary consolidation occurs
rather quickly due to high permeability .
Primary consolidation is a major component of settlement of fine grained
saturated soils and this can be estimated from the theory of consolidation.

settlement

Settlement

Primary consolidation(sc)

Fine grain soils (clay soil)

time

As permeability is low so expulsion of water take

more time, and settlement completed in long
time.

Granular soils (Sandy soil)

time

As permeability is high expulsion of water is quick,

and settlement completed in short period.

Primary consolidation(sc)
With passage of time water starts flowing out from the voids as a result
The excess pore water pressure decreases and simultaneous increase in effective
stress will takes place.
The volume change is basically due to the change ineffective stress . After
considerable amount of time (t =) flow from the voids ceases the effective
stress stabilizes and will be is equal to external applied total stress () and this
stage signifies the end of primary consolidation.
At t = t1
=+ u
At t =
=u = 0 (End of primary consolidation)

Secondary consolidation(sc)
The reduction in volume continues at a very slow rate even after the excess pore
water pressure developed by the applied pressure is fully dissipated and the
primary consolidation is complete
This additional reduction in the volume is known as secondary consolidation.
Secondary consolidation becomes important for certain types of soil, such as
peats and soft organic clays.
It is the change in volume of a fine grained soil due to rearrangement of soil
particles (fabric) at constant effective stress.

Secondary consolidation(sc)
The rate of secondary consolidation is very slow when compared with
primary consolidation

Effective stress versus time

Consolidation settlement depends on

1. Magnitude of applied pressure.
2. Thickness of the saturated deposit.

We are concerned with

Measurement of volume change.

The time duration required for the volume change.

Terzaghis Spring Mass Analogy

Terzaghis model consists of a cylindrical vessel with a series of piston separated by
springs. The space between springs is filled with water the pistons are perforated to
allow for passage of water. Piezometers are inserted at the centers of different
compartment to measure the pressure head due to excess pore water pressure.

Terzaghis Spring Mass Analogy

Terzaghi has correlated the spring mass compression process with the
consolidation of saturated clay subjected to external load.
The springs and the surrounding water represent the saturated soil.
The springs represent the soil skeleton networks of soil grains and water in the
vessels represents the water in the voids.
In this arrangement the compression is one dimensional and flow will be in the
vertical direction.

Terzaghis Spring Mass Analogy

When pressure is applied this will be borne by water surrounding the spring
= u
at time t =0
u is called excess hydrostatic pressure due to this water level in all the Piezometer
u
reach the same height h given by h =

= u and = 0-------------t=0
There will be no volume change.

Terzaghis Spring Mass Analogy

After sometimet there will be flow of water through perforation beginning from
upper compartment. In the lower compartment the volume of water remains
constant since the flow is in upward direction. Due to flow of water in the upper
segment there will be reduction in volume due to this springs get compressed and
they being to carry a portion of the applied load. This signifies a reduction in excess
hydrostatic pressure or pore water pressure and increase in effective stress in the
upper segments. Whereas there will be no dissipation of excess hydrostatic
pressure in lower compartments.

Terzaghis Spring Mass Analogy

1. At time t1, t2,--------t= the
variation of excess hydrostatic
pressure are as indicated by the
Isochrones shown in Fig .
2. The isochrones indicate that with
passage of time there is flow of
water from the lower
compartments leading to gradual
dissipation of excess hydrostatic
pressure.

3. At time t = when no more pore

water flows out the excess
hydrostatic pressure will be zero in
all compartments and the entire
load is carried by springs.

Effect of Stress History

1. Normally consolidated soils.
2. Over consolidated soils.
3. Under consolidated soils.

Effect of Stress History

1. Normal consolidated soils
It is soil deposit that has never subjected to vertical effective stress greater than
the present vertical stress.

2. Over consolidated soils

It is a soil deposit that has been subjected to vertical effective stress greater than
the present vertical effective stress.

3. Under consolidated soils

A soil deposit that has not consolidated under the present overburden
pressure(effective stress) is called under consolidated soil. These soils are
susceptible to larger deformation and cause distress in buildings built on these
deposits.

Effect of Stress History

Over Consolidation Ratio (OCR)
The maximum pressure to which an over-consolidation soil had been subjected in
the past divided by the present pressure is known as the over consolidation ratio.

Laboratory Consolidation Test

The laboratory consolidation test is conducted with an apparatus known as
consolidometer consisting essentially of loading frame and consolidation cell in
which the specimen is kept. Porous stones are put on the top and bottom end of
specimen.

Consolidometer Apparatus
Consolidometer shown in fig (a)
The consolidation cell is two type
1. Floating or free cell, in which both top and bottom porous stones are free to
move and shown in fig (b).
2. Fixed ring cell, in which bottom stone is fixed shown on fig (b).

Laboratory Consolidation Test

The loading machine is capable of applying steady vertical pressure up to 800kN/m2
. During the test specimen is allowed to consolidate under a number of increments
of vertical pressure, such as 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000kN/m2 , and each
pressure increment is maintained constant until the compression virtually cease,
generally 24 hours. The vertical compression of the specimen is measured by mean
a dial gauge. Dial gauge reading taken after application of each increment of load at
following total elapsed times : .25, 1.00, 2.25, 4.00, 6.25, 9.00, 16.00, 20.25, 25, 36,
49, 60 minutes and 2,4,8 and 24 hours. The consolidation test data are then used
to determine the following.
1. Void ratio and coefficient of volume change.
2. Coefficient of consolidation.

Calculation Of Void Ratio

Void ratio at the end of each pressure increment can be calculated by two
methods.
a) Height of solids method.
b) Change in void ratio method.
The change in void method is used only for fully saturated specimens, while the
height of solids method can use for both saturated as well as unsaturated samples.

a) Height of solids method : The height HS of the solids of specimen is calculated

from the following expression : HS=

Where HS= height of soils (cm), Wd = Wight of dried specimen,

A = area of specimen (cm2) , G is specific gravity of soil.

Calculation Of Void Ratio

a) Height of solids method :
The void ratio is calculated from the following relation:

e=

Where , H= specimen height (cm) at equilibrium under various applied

pressure = H1+H
H1 = height of specimen at beginning of the load increment.
H change in the specimen thickness under any pressure increment.

Calculation Of Void Ratio

b) Change in voids ratio method:
Assuming the specimen to by fully saturated, the voids ratio ef at the end of the
test is determined from relation:
ef = wf G
Where, ef = final void ratio, at the end of the test,
wf = final water content, at the end of the test.
The change of voids ratio e under each increment is calculated from following
1+
relationship : e =

Where Hf = final height of specimen , at the end of the test.

Basic Definitions
1. Coefficient of Compressibility.
The coefficient of compressibility (av) is
defend as decrees in void ratio increase in
effective stress. It is equal to the slop of e curve at point under consideration.
Thus

av =

Basic Definitions
2. Coefficient of Volume Change
The coefficient of volume change is defined as the volumetric strain per unit
increase in effective stress.
Thus

mv =

Where
mv= coefficient of volume change,
V0= initial volume,
V= change in volume,
= change in effective stress.

Basic Definitions
3. Compression index
The compression index (CC) is equal to the
slope of the linear portion of the void
ratio versus logarithm of effective stress
Thus

CC =

log1012

Where 2= Final stress at e2

1 =final stress at e1, e=change in void
ratio.

Basic Definitions
3. Compression index
The compression index is extremely useful for determination of the settlement in
field.
Terzaghi and Peck gave following empirical relationship for clays of low to medium
sensitivity.
a) For undisturbed soils,
CC = 0.009(WL-10)
b) For remolded soils,
CC = 0.007(WL-10)
Where WL = liquid limit of soil.
The value of CC normally varies between .30 for highly plastic clays.

Basic Definitions
4. Expansion Index.
The expansion index or swelling index
(Ce) is the slope of the e-log plot
obtained during unloading(BEC in fig).
Ce =

10( 1 2)
1

Determination of Pre-consolidation Pressure

1. Determine the point E on the curve
where the curvature is maximum.
2. Draw the tangent EF to the curve at E.
3. Draw a horizontal line EG at E.
4. Bisect the angle between the tangent
EF and horizontal EG, draw the
bisector EH.
5. Produce back the straight line portion
CD of the curve and determine the
point of intersection P at bisector.
6. Draw the vertical PJ which cuts the log
-axis at J. The point J indicates the
pre consolidation pressure c.
Casagrande construction for determining
Pre-consolidation stress

Settlement Of A Soil Deposit In The Field

Computation of settlement of soil deposit in the field consists of two part.
1. Computation of magnitude of final settlement.
2. Determination of the time-rate of settlement.
For the computation of final settlement, the coefficient of volume change or the
compression index is required. Which is based on the plot between void ratio and
the effective stress. For the time-rate the Terzaghi theory is used.

Computation of Immediate Settlement

1. Immediate Settlement of Cohesive soils(Si).
Si =qB

12
(
)

Where q = uniformly distributed load, B=characteristic length of the loaded area,

ES =modulus of elasticity of the soil, = poison's ratio(=.50 for saturated clay),
=influence factor.
The value of ES is determined from the stress-strain curve obtained from triaxial
consolidation- untrained test, with consolidation pressure equal to the effective
pressure at depth from which the sample was taken.

Values of influence Factor

Shape

Flexible footing

Rigid footing

Center

Corner

Average

Circle

1.0

.64

.85

.79

Square

1.12

.56

.95

.82

L/B=1.5

1.36

.68

1.20

1.06

L/B=2.0

1.53

.77

1.31

1.20

L/B=5.0

2.10

1.05

1.83

1.70

L/B=10

2.52

1.26

2.25

2.10

L/B=100

3.38

1.69.

2.96

3.40

Rectangle

Computation of Immediate Settlement

2. Immediate settlement of Cohesion less soils (Si)
a) According to Schmertmaan and Hartman (1978).
Si = C1 C2 (q-q)

0
=

Where
C1=correction factor for the depth foundation embedment = 1-.5 /( ) .
C2=correction factor for creep in soil= 1 +

.210(
)
.1

q = pressure at the level of the foundation, q= surcharge =(Df).

Es= modulus of elasticity, z = stain influence factor.

Computation of Immediate Settlement

The value of the strain-influence
factor Z varies linearly for a square or
circular foundation.
Value of ES from SPT = 766N(KN/m2)
Value of ES from qc = 2qc
VALUE OF Z
For Square Footing

For Rectangular Foundation

L/B=10 Or Greater

Depth Z

Value of

Depth Z

Value of

0.1

0.0

0.2

.5B

0.5

0.5

2B

0.0

4B

0.0

Computation of Immediate Settlement

b) Static cone penetration method.
In this method ,the sand layer is divided into small layers. The settlement of each
layer is estimated using the following equation,
(De Beer and Martens,1957).

0+
S=

Where C =1.5qc/ 0

In which qc = static cone resistance, 0= mean effective overburden pressure,

=increase In pressure at the center of layer due to net foundation pressure and H=
thickness of layer.

Computation of Immediate settlement

c) Plate Load Test
The settlement of footing can be
estimated from the settlement of plate
in the plate load test.
For sandy soil sf =

(+.3) 2
sp
(+.3)

Where
Bf is width of foundation in meters and
Bp is width of plate also in meter, Sf is
settlement of foundation.

Computation of Immediate Settlement

d) Standard Penetration Test.
Standard penetration test can be used for
the determination of the settlement on
cohesion less soils.IS :8009(Part 1) gives a
chart for calculation of settlement per unit
pressure as function of the width of the
footing and the standard penetration
number.
The settlement is in meter per unit pressure.
If the water table is at a shallow depth the
settlement are divided by correction factor
W = .5+.5 b/B 1

Computation of Primary Settlement

As the compression index of a normally consolidated soils is constant. For such
soils, it is more convenient to use compression index. Following equation is used to
calculate settlement,
SC =

0+
H
log 10
1+0
0

Where H is thickness of stratum,e0 is initial void ratio,p0 initial pressure,p change

in pressure, CC = 0.007(WL-10)

Computation of Secondary Settlement

It is difficult to evaluate secondary
settlement. It is analogues to the creep in
steel when is overstressed and in the plastic
state. The rate of secondary settlement is
given by the secondary compression index
(ct), as defined below.
Ct =

10(2)
1

Where e is change in void ratio between t1

and t2
It is equal to the slope of the final liner part
of the curve drawn between the void ratio
and log time show in fig

Rate of Consolidation
The Process of consolidation occur at the different rate in different parts of the
specimen. As the drainage facilities are better at the upper and lower boundaries
the progress of consolidation is rapid than the middle of the specimen.
Theory of consolidation, has been developed for computing the rate of
consolidation by Terzaghi based on assumption that the laws of hydraulics govern
the decrees of pore water pressure. The following equations are used
Degree of consolidation
U = f(Tv)
where
and

Tv = 2 t

Cv =

Tv is a dimensionless number called the time factor, Cv is known as coefficient of

consolidation, d is drainage path, t is time corresponding to U, is coefficient of
volume compressibility, is coefficient of permeability.

Accuracy of Foundation Settlement Prediction

1. The soil deposits are seldom isotropic and linearly elastic. The deposits are
generally non-homogeneous.

2. It is not possible to estimate the increase in stresses caused by loads.

3. For estimation of immediate settlement, it is not possible to locate exactly the
drainage faces.
4. For computation of immediate settlement, it is not possible to estimate the
correct value of the modulus of elasticity.
5. The rigidity of the foundation is usually neglected and the pressure distribution
is assumed to be uniform.
6. It is difficult to obtain undisturbed samples of cohesion less soils. The semiempirical method do not give accurate results.

References
Rajan, Gopal and Rao, A.S.R., Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics.
Arora, KR., Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.
Punmia, B.C., Soil mechanics and foundation by B.C Punmia.
Nptel.iitm.ac.in

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