Presentation on Ground wave

propagation

Amit Gupta
 INTRODUCTION
 Medium ranging up to 80km is not uniform throughout
the day and night. It varies abruptly due to temperature
variation and wind conditions.
 The ionosphere is uniform throughout day & night.
Hence it is used for communication
 For obtaining a satisfactory wave propagation link the
following parameters are to be considered:
1. Propagation characteristics
2. Type of Propagation
3. Structure & Properties of propagation media
 Properties of radio waves
 Refraction
 Reflection

 Diffraction

 Interference
 Refraction
 Occurs when the waves pass from
one medium to another whose
densities are different
 Coefficient of reflection is less than 1

 The angle of incidence and the angle

of refraction is related by Snell’s Law

u=sin I
sin r
 Refraction happens
because the light slows
down in the material

(the part of the beam that

arrives first slows down first)
Glass

Air
Reflection
source intensity I

incident reflected
wave front
normal n wave front
Qi Qr
surface
element
 Reflection
 Reflection is the abrupt reversal in
direction
 Caused by any conductive medium

such as
• Metal surfaces or
• Earth’s surface
 There will normally be a shift in
phase
 Coefficient of reflection is less than 1
 Ground wave propagation
 These wave guided along the surface
of earth
 These waves are produced by

vertical antennas
 Maximum range depends not only on

the frequency but power as well.

Ground wave propagation
 Ground Waves
 Radio wave that travels along the
earth’s surface (surface wave)
 Vertically polarized

 Changes in terrain have strong effect

 Attenuation directly related to

surface impedances
• More conductive the more attenuated
• Better over water
 Attenuation related to
frequency
• Loses increase with increase in
frequency
• Not very effective at frequencies
above 2Mhz
• Very reliable communication link
• Reception is not affected by daily
or seasonal weather changes
 Applications of Ground Wave
Propagation
 In AM radio broadcasting operating in
MW band.
 The VLF transmission is used for ship

communications such as radio

navigation
 The VLF transmission is used for the

time & frequency transmission.

Advantages of Ground wave
propagation
 If the transmitted is enough large, then
ground wave propagation can be used to
communicate between any two point of the
world
 The atmospheric conditions do not affect

the ground wave propagation too much.

Disadvantages of Ground wave
propagation
 Limited range for higher operating
frequencies.
 At low operating frequencies, very tall

antenna should be used. This is

because the antenna height should be
at least(wavelength/4).
 High transmission is necessary to

cover the adequate range . The power

in excess of 1MW is a common thing
 Sky, Short wave,
Ionospheric Propagation
 In this radio wave is reflected back to earth from
ionized region in the upper atmosphere called
ionosphere
 EM waves of frequencies higher than 30 MHz are not

reflected from the ionosphere instead they

penetrate it.
 It is suitable for short wave only i.e. from 2 MHz to

30 MHz. it is known as short wave propagation.

 The signal is subjected to fading . It is because large

number of wave follows a different of paths.

 Atmospheric
 Three layers:
• Troposphere: earth’s surface to about
6.5 mi
• Stratosphere: extends from the
troposphere upwards for about 23 mi
• Ionosphere: extends from the
stratosphere upwards for about 250mi
• Beyond this layer is free space
 IONOSPHERE
 The layers that form the ionosphere vary
greatly in altitude, density, and thickness
with the varying degrees of solar activity.
 The upper portion of the F layer is most
affected by sunspots or solar disturbances
 There is a greater concentration of solar
radiation during peak sunspot activity.
 The greater radiation activity the more
dense the F layer and the higher the F layer
becomes and the greater the skip distance
 These waves undergoes negligible attenuation as
they travels through space as spreading and rain
are the only causes of attenuation. Only HF waves
are attenuated by rain.
 Field is inversely proportional to distance.

 As the ground wave propagation is reflected, there

is no change in its magnitude, but its phase reverses

irrespective of the type of polarization.
Space wave propagation (from
30 MHz onwards)
 It is known as line of sight propagation, although the actual
distance covered by space wave is slightly larger than line of
sight due to refraction in earth’s surface.
 Microwaves and communication applications like television,
radar, frequency modulation, etc. use this mode of
propagation.
 Sky wave and ground wave both fail beyond 30 MHz. sky wave
fails as the wave length becomes too short to be reflected
from ionosphere and ground waves are propagating close to
the antenna only, as attenuation is very high.
 Reflection from earth
surface
 The transmitted and reflected waves will have the same
amplitudes if the earth is considered to be a perfect conductor
having infinite conductivity.
 If the surface of the earth is smooth and finite conductivity,
then the amplitude and phase of the reflected wave can be
obtained using the concept of reflection at a perfect dielectric.
 If the surface of the earth is rough, then the reflected wave is
obtained due to the Rayleigh’s criterion which states that if
the reflecting surface is rough, the reflection is similar to that
of smooth surface provided the angle of incidence is large.
Reflection from the Earth’s
Surface

4π σsin φ
R= ....(1)
λ
R = measure of roughness
σ = s tan dard deviation of surface irregularities from mean height
φ = angle of incidence
λ = wavelength
Depending upon the value of R is obtained the
surface is smooth or rough.
R<0.1 smooth surface
R>10
The earth is not a perfect conductor or a rough
surface perfect dielectric. It posses some
conductivity. This factor must be taken into
account while measuring the reflection of the
waves from the earth surface
 ∂E
∇× H = ε + σE ........(2)
∂t
E = E 0 e j ωt ........(3)
∂E
= E0 .( jω )e jωt = jωE
∂t
∂E
= jω E ........(4)
∂t
 ∂E 
∂E  ∂t  ∂E σ ∂E
∇× H = ε +σ   = ε +
∂t  jω  ∂t jω ∂t
 
 σ  ∂E
∇ × H =  ε +  ........(5)
 jω  ∂t
σ
let ε ' = ε +
jω
∂E
∇× H = ε' ........(6)
∂t
σ  σ 
ε '= ε + = ε 1 +  ........(7)
jω  jω ε
 Radio waves radiated from the transmitting
antenna in a direction toward the
ionosphere
 Long distance transmissions
 Sky wave strike the ionosphere, is refracted
back to ground, strike the ground, reflected
back toward the ionosphere, etc until it
reaches the receiving antenna
 Skipping is he refraction and reflection of
sky waves
 Now let us determine the reflection coefficients separately for
the horizontal and vertical polarization.
 We will assume that the earth surface is partially conducting
dielectric and wave incident at the surface of earth through
the air. Hence, dielectric constant of the medium is 1.For
medium i.e. surface of earth the dielectric constant is …….
 Let the height of Tx and Rx antenna be h1 and h2.
Reflection coefficient for horizontal
Polarization
horizontalpolarization
Er ε cos θ1 − ε 2 − ε1 sin 2 θ1
= 1 ........(8)
Ei ε1 cos θ1 − ε 2 − ε1 sin 2 θ1
 σ 
ε 0 cosθ −  ε +  − ε 0 sin 2 θ
E  jω 
RH = r = ........(9)
Ei  σ 
ε 0 cos θ +  ε +  − ε 0 sin 2 θ
 jω 
ε 0 dielectric of free space
 σ 
 ε +  dielectric of earth
 jω 
ψ = 900 − θ
θ = 900 −ψ
 ε jσ  
ε 0 sinψ −  −  − cos 2 ψ 
  ε 0 ω ε0  
RH =
 ε jσ  
ε 0 sinψ +  −  − cos 2 ψ 
  ε 0 ω ε0  

ε jσ 
sinψ −  −  − cos 2 ψ
ε
 0 ω ε
0 
RH = ........(10)
ε jσ 
sinψ +  −  − cos 2 ψ
 ε 0 ω ε0 
ε = ε rε 0
 jσ 
sinψ −  ε r −  − cos 2 ψ
 ω ε0 
RH =
 jσ 
sinψ +  ε r −  − cos 2 ψ
 ω ε
0 

σ
Let X =
ω ε0
sinψ − ( ε r − jX ) − cos2 ψ
RH = ........(11)
sinψ + ( ε r − jX ) − cos2 ψ
Re flection coefficient forvertical polarization
 ε2   ε2 
  cos θ1 −   − sin 2 θ1
Er  ε1   ε1 
= ........(12)
Ei  ε   ε2 
 2  cos θ1 +   − sin 2 θ1
 ε1   ε1 
 σ   σ 
  ε +    ε + 
 jω    jω  
 cos θ −  − sin θ
2
 ε0  ε0
   
   
Er    
RV = = ........(13)
Ei   σ   σ 
  ε +     ε + 
 jω    jω  
 cos θ +   − sin θ
2
 ε0 ε0
   
   
ε0 dielectric cons tan t of free space
 σ 
 ε +  dielectric cons tan t of earth
 jω 
ε jσ  ε jσ 
 −  cos θ −  −  − sin 2 θ
Er  ε 0 ε 0ω   ε 0 ε 0ω 
RV = = ........(14)
Ei  ε jσ  ε jσ 
 −  cos θ +  −  − sin 2 θ
 ε 0 ε 0ω   ε 0 ε 0ω 
cosψ = cos(90 − θ ) = sin θ
sinψ = sin(90 − θ ) = cos θ
ε jσ  ε jσ 
 −  sinψ −  −  − cos 2 ψ
Er  ε 0 ε 0ω   ε 0 ε 0ω 
RV = = ........(15)
Ei  ε jσ  ε jσ 
 −  sinψ +  −  − cos 2 ψ
 ε 0 ε 0ω   ε 0 ε 0ω 
εr
ε = ε rε 0
σ
Let X =
ω ε0
( ε r − jX ) sinψ − ( ε r − jX ) − cos 2 ψ
RH = ........(16)
( ε r − jX ) sinψ + ( ε r − jX ) − cos 2 ψ
 SURFACE AND SPACE WAVE
 Sommerfeld solved the problem of radiation from a vertical antenna above
the plane earth having a finite conductivity.
 Acc. to Sommerfeld we can divide the ground wave field strength in to 2
parts i.e. space wave and surface wave.
 The surface wave can be used for propagation at large distances above
the earth where as surface wave is used most near the earth surface,
 At large distances from the dipole, the higher order terms that contain
coefficients 1/R1 & 1/R2 can be neglected.
surface wave and space wave
  e − jβR1 RV e − jβR2  Fe − jβR2 
EZ = j 30 βdl cos 2 ψ  + (
 + (1 − RV ) 1 − u 2 + u 4 cos 2 ψ )  ........(1)
  R1 R2  R2 
  e − jβR1 RV e − jβR2  Fe − jβR2  sin 2 ψ 
Eρ = j 30 βdl sin ψ cosψ  +  − cosψ (1 − RV ) u 1 − u 2 cos 2 ψ 1 + ...(2)
  R1 R2  R2  2 
EZ z component of the electric field
Eρ radial component of the electric field
RV plane wave reflction coefficient
R1 , R2 Dis tan cesfromdipole and
its image to field poo int
F Attenuation function
1
u2 =
ε r − jX
ε
εr = relative dielectric of earth
εV
1.8 − 10 4 σ mho / m
X=
f MHz
σ = conductivity of the earth
Etotalspace = Eψ ( space ) = E 2 Z ( space) + E 2 ρ ( surface )
 e − jβR1 RV e − jβR2 
Etotalspace = j 30 βIdl cosψ  + 
 R1 R2 
 e − jβR1 RV e − jβR2 
Etotalspace = j 30 βIdl cosψ  +  ........(3)
 1 R R2 
2
e − jβR2  sin 2 ψ 
Eρ = j 30 βdl (1 − RV ) F . 1 − 2u 2 + cos 2 ψ .u 2 1 +  ........(4)
R2  2 
 SURFACE WAVE
Surface propagation is preferred for VLF and LF in which max. power is
maintain along the earth surface using the principle of diffraction.
Polarization
Vertical polarization is used for surface wave propagation in which the E is
maintained normal to earth’s surface to reduce the attenuation due to
earth’s conduction. The ground wave induces charges in the earth
surface which travel with the wave and so constitute a current. Any
horizontal field component is nullified by earth’s conduction. The earth’s
surface can be represented by a leaky capacitance shunted across a
resistor. Earth is characterized by conductivity (Sigma) and dielectric
constant (epsilon). Higher the conductivity greater the distance of
communication.
Surface wave
 SURFACE WAVE TILTING

Even though waves are vertically polarized

the e wave will have small forward tilt
w.r.t. earth surface. A tilted wave results
a horizontal component which is nullified
by earth conduction and vertical
component further proceeds. During to
continuous tilting, there is continuous
attenuation and hence distance of
communication is limited.
surface wave from vertical dipole
e − j β R2
Esurface = j 30βIdl (1 − RV ) F .
R2
∧  sin 2 ψ  
( )
∧
k 1 − u + r cosψ 1 + u 1 − u cos ψ .....(1)
2 2 2

  2  
∧
k : unit vector parallel to vertical dipole
∧
r : unit vector parpendicular to vertical dipole
R : dis tan ce from dipole to po int
F : Attenuation function
{
F = 1 − j π ωe −ω erfc j ω [ ( )]}
ω=
(
− jβRu 2 1 − u 2 cos 2 ψ ) 1 + sinψ 

2  u 1 − u cos ψ 
2 2

1
u2 =
ε r − jX
18 ×103σ
X=
f MHz

( )
∞
2
∫ dV
2
erfc j ω = e −V

ω j ω
surface wave from vertical dipole
A = F = 1 − j π ωe −ω erfc j ω [ ( )] ψ =0

A = F = 1 − j π 01 e − p1 [erfc( j p )]
1

where p1 isthevalueof ω at ψ = 0
−b
∴ ω ψ =0 = p1 = pe
p = numerical dis tan ce
b = phase cons tan t

( )
2
− jβ R 1 − u cos ψ  1 + sinψ
2 2 
V= 2
 
2u  u 1 − u cos ψ 
2 2

e − j ( βR −ωt )  ∧ ∧

Esurface = j 30 βIdl.  cos φ sin ψ ( 1 − RV ) ψ + sin φ ( 1 + Rh ) φ ....(2)
R  
∧ ∧ ∧
k ,ψ and φ
Rh : plane wave reflection factor for horizontal polarization
RV : plane wave reflection factor for var tical polarization
groundwaveatttenuationfactorA
p −( 5 / 8)
A ≅ A1 − sin b e
2
b
2 + 0.3 p
A1 ≅
2 + p + 0.6 p 2
p
A ≅ e −0.43 p + 0.01 p 2
surface wave from horizontal dipole

Esurface =
R
{
j 30β Idle − j ( βR −ωt )
}
cos φ (u − 1 − u 2 cos 2 ψ ) (1 − RV ) F

 
1 − sin 4 ψ −
(1 − Rh ) G  ρ∧ 
  
 sin 2
ψ ∧ ( 1 − R ) u 2
F
cosψ 1 +
  k + u 1 − u 2 cos 2 ψ  V  
  2  1 − u 2 cos 2 ψ 
 
 
{ [ (
G = 1 − j πV e −V erfc j V )]}
πR X
p= .
λ cos b'
b = 180 − b'
18 × 103 σ
X=
f MHz
 ε −1
b' = tan −1  r 
 X 
 Field strength of surface
wave
 Energy that’s reaches the receiver by two waves
through direct wave and through ground reflected
wave.
 Direct wave travels between transmitting and
receiving antenna directly over path TxRx. The
direct wave is called free space wave
 The ground reflected wave travels over the path
TxORx. It involves reflection via surface of ground.
 Field at the receiving antenna Rx is vector sum of
fields due to both the waves.
FIELD STRENGTH OF SPACE
WAVE
 2 E0  2hs hr 
Field strength of receiver = sin  ...(1)
d  λd 
λ : wavelength
d : dis tan cebetweenanteenas
hs : heightoftransmittingantenna
hr : heightofreceivingantenna
E0 : fieldstrengthofdirectwave
Forl arg edis tan ces,
2hs hr
< 0.5
λd
2h h 2h h
sin s r ≈ s r
λd λd
substituti ngineqn(1)
2 E0 2hs hr
Field strength of receiver =
d λd
4πhs hr E0
Field strength of receiver = ...(2)
λd 2
 Space Wave
 Two types
• Direct
• Ground reflected
 Direct Wave
 Limited to “line-of sight”
transmission distances
 Antenna height and curvature of

earth are limiting factors

 Radio horizon is about 80% greater

than line of sight because of

diffraction effects
 Reflected wave
 Part of the signal from the
transmitter is bounced off the ground
and reflected back to the receiving
antenna
 Can cause problems if the phase

between the direct wave and the

reflected wave are not in phase
 Detuning the antenna so that the

reflected wave is too weak to receive

Range of space wave propagation
Range of space wave
propagation
Range of surface wave
d1 = ( ht + r ) 2 − r 2 2
= ht + r 2 + 2ht r − r 2
2 2
= ht + 2ht  ht 〈 2ht r
≈ 2rht meters ........(2)
similarly
d2 = ( hr + r ) 2 − r 2 2
= hr + r 2 + 2hr r − r 2
2 2
= hr + 2hr  hr 〈 2hr r
≈ 2rhr meters ........(3)

d = 2rht + 2rhr = 2r [ ht + hr ]
= 2 × 6370 × 103 [ ht + hr ]
= 12.74 ×106 [ ht + hr ]
[ ]
= 3.57 × 103 ht + hr meters = 3.57 ht + hr km [ ]