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Intermolecular Forces
Presented by: Sudhir Kumar PGT (Chemistry)
K.V. No. 1 PATHANKOT, AIR FORCE STN, JAMMU REGION
Comparisons of the
States of Matter
the solid and liquid states have a much higher density
than the gas state
therefore the molar volume of the solid and liquid states is
much smaller than the gas state
Freedom of Motion
the molecules in a gas have complete freedom of motion
their kinetic energy overcomes the attractive forces between
the molecules
Shape
Solid
Fixed
Fixed
No
No
Strength of
Intermolecular
Attractions
very strong
Liquid
Indef.
Fixed
No
Yes
moderate
Gas
Indef.
Indef.
Yes
Yes
very weak
Solids
properties
&
structure
Bonding in Solids
There are four types of solid:
Molecular (formed from molecules) - usually soft
with low melting points and poor conductivity.
Covalent network (formed from atoms) - very hard
with very high melting points and poor conductivity.
Ions (formed form ions) - hard, brittle, high melting
points and poor conductivity.
Metallic (formed from metal atoms) - soft or hard,
high melting points, good conductivity, malleable and
ductile.
Sudhir Kumar PGT (Chem.) KV Chamera -2
Crystalline Solids
Determining Crystal Structure
crystalline solids have a very regular geometric
X-ray Crystallography
Braggs Law
nl
d
2 sin q
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Relationships:
Solution:
n = 1, q = 32.6, l = 154 pm
d, pm
n, q, l
d
nl
d
2 sin q
nl
1154 pm
d
143 pm
2 sin q 2sin 32.6
Check: the units are correct, the size makes sense since the
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iron atom has an atomic radius of 140 pm
Crystal Lattice
when allowed to cool slowly, the particles in a
liquid will arrange themselves to give the
maximum attractive forces
therefore minimize the energy
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Unit Cells
unit cells are repeated over and over to give the macroscopic
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Unit Cells
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Unit Cells
Three common types of unit cell.
Primitive cubic, atoms at the corners of a simple cube, each
atom shared by 8 unit cells;
Body-centered cubic (bcc), atoms at the corners of a
cube
plus one in the center of the body of the cube, corner atoms
shared by 8 unit cells, center atom completely enclosed in one
unit cell;
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Unit Cells
16
7 Unit Cells
c
c
c
b
a
Cubic
a=b=c
all 90
a
Tetragonal
a=c<b
all 90
a
Orthorhombic
abc
all 90
a b
Monoclinic
abc
2 faces 90
c
c
a
a
Hexagonal
Rhombohedral
a=c<b
a=b=c
2 Kumar
facesPGT
90
Sudhir
(Chem.) KV Chamera -2 no 90
1 face 120
Triclinic
abc
no 90
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Unit Cells
the number of other particles each particle is in contact
with is called its coordination number
for ions, it is the number of oppositely charged ions an ion is
in contact with
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19
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Simple Cubic
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of a cube
1/8th of each particle lies in the
unit cell
each particle part of 8 cells
1 particle in each unit cell
8 corners x 1/8
edge of unit cell = twice the
radius
coordination number of 6
2r
22
Body-Centered Cubic
23
4r
3
24
Face-Centered Cubic
25
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Concept
Plan:
fcc
mass
l = 2r2
m, V
Relationships:
Solution:
V
V = l3
d = m/V
1 cm =
1 pm = 10-12 m
V = l3, l = 2r2, d = m/V
fcc = 4 atoms/uc, Al = 26.982 g/mol, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
102 m,
1 mol
26.982 g 4.0 45 10-8
l4 atoms
2r Al
2 2(1.43
10 8 cm)(1.414)
1.792 10 22 cm
g
6.0221023 atoms
1 mol
22
m
1
.
792
10
g
3
-12
3
8
m 1 cmd 8
V l 4.04510 cm
10 23 cm3
143 pm
-2 1V.43 610.618cm
6.6181023 cm13 pm 10 m 2.71 g 3
cm
Check:
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Closest-Packed Structures
First Layer
with spheres, it is more efficient to offset each
row in the gaps of the previous row than to lineup rows and columns
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Closest-Packed Structures
Second Layer
the second layer atoms can sit directly over the
atoms in the first called an AA pattern
or the second layer can sit over the holes in the
first called an AB pattern
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Closest-Packed Structures
Third Layer with Offset 2nd Layer
the third layer atoms can align directly over the
atoms in the first called an ABA pattern
or the third layer can sit over the uncovered
holes in the first called an ABC pattern
Cubic Closest-Packed
Hexagonal
Closest-Packed
Face-Centered Cubic
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31
32
33
34
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The
Indicated
Sphere Has
12 Nearest
Neighbors
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38
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40
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Molecular Solids
the lattice site are occupied by molecules
the molecules are held together by
intermolecular attractive forces
dispersion forces, dipole attractions, and H-bonds
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Ionic Solids
Attractive Forces
held together by attractions between opposite charges
nondirectional
therefore every cation attracts all anions around it, and vice versa
43
Ionic Crystals
CsCl
coordination number = 8
Cs+ = 167 pm
Cl = 181 pm
Sudhir Kumar PGT (Chem.) KV Chamera -2
NaCl
coordination number = 6
Na+ = 97 pm
Cl = 181 pm
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Lattice Holes
Tetrahedral
Hole
Octahedral
Hole
Simple Cubic
Hole
45
Lattice Holes
46
47
Na:Cl = ( x 12) + 1: ( x 8) + ( x 6)
= 4:4 = 1:1,
therefore the formula is NaCl
48
Zn:S = (4 x 1) : ( x 8) + ( x 6) = 4:4
= 1:1,
therefore the formula is ZnS
Sudhir Kumar PGT (Chem.) KV Chamera -2
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Fluorite Structures
coordination number = 4
Ca2+ ions (99 pm) in a face-centered
cubic arrangement
= 1:2,
therefore the formula is CaF2
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Metallic Structure
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Metallic Bonding
metal atoms release their valence electrons
metal cation islands fixed in a sea of
mobile electrons
+
e+
+
e-
ee-
+
+
ee-
e-
e+
ee-
+
+
ee-
+
+
ee-
+
+
ee-
+
+
54
= other
= hexagonal closest
packed
= diamond
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bonds
because of the directionality of the covalent bonds,
these do not tend to form closest-packed arrangements
in the crystal
because of the strength of the covalent bonds, these
have very high melting points
generally > 1000C
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Properties of Diamond
very high melting, ~3800C
need to overcome some covalent bonds
very rigid
due to the directionality of the covalent bonds
very hard
due to the strong covalent bonds holding the
atoms in position
used as abrasives
electrical insulator
thermal conductor
best known
58
sp2
each C has 3 sigma and 1 pi bond
trigonal-planar geometry
each sheet a giant molecule
59
Properties of Graphite
hexagonal crystals
high melting, ~3800C
need to overcome some covalent bonding
slippery feel
because there are only dispersion forces holding
the sheets together, they can slide past each other
glide planes
lubricants
electrical conductor
parallel to sheets
thermal insulator
chemically very nonreactive
Sudhir Kumar PGT (Chem.) KV Chamera -2
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Silicates
~90% of earths crust
extended arrays of SiO
sometimes with Al substituted for Si aluminosilicates
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Quartz
melts at ~1600C
very hard
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Micas
minerals that are mainly 2-dimensional arrays of
Si bonded to O
hexagonal arrangement of atoms
sheets
chemically stable
thermal and electrical insulator
Sudhir Kumar PGT (Chem.) KV Chamera -2
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Band Theory
the structures of metals and covalent network
solids result in every atoms orbitals being
shared by the entire structure
for large numbers of atoms, this results in a
large number of molecular orbitals that have
approximately the same energy, we call this an
energy band
Sudhir Kumar PGT (Chem.) KV Chamera -2
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Band Theory
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Band Gap
at absolute zero, all the electrons will occupy the
valence band
as the temperature rises, some of the electrons
may acquire enough energy to jump to the
conduction band
the difference in energy between the valence
band and conduction band is called the band gap
the larger the band gap, the fewer electrons there are
with enough energy to make the jump
Sudhir Kumar PGT (Chem.) KV Chamera -2
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Doping Semiconductors
doping is adding impurities to the semiconductors
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Diodes
when a p-type semiconductor adjoins an n-type
semiconductor, the result is an p-n junction
electricity can flow across the p-n junction in
only one direction this is called a diode
this also allows the accumulation of electrical
energy called an amplifier
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Thank You
Presented by: Sudhir Kumar Maingi
PGT CHEMISTRY
K.V. No. 1 PATHANKOT, JAMMU REGION
E-MAIL: sudhir.maingi@gmail.com
sudhir_maingi@rediffmail.com
Phone: 8146832622
Acknowledgements : Prentice Hall Publications
Steven S. Zumdahl
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