CHAPTER 7

RESPIRATION

 RESPIRATION is the breaking down of

food to produce energy.
External respiration (breathing) and
internal respiration(cellular respiration).
The main substrate for respiration is
GLUCOSE. (from digestion &
photosynthesis)

 Respiration at cellular level is known as

cellular respiration.
Respiration occur in the mitochondria and
cytoplasm of cells.
Cellular respiration is the breaking of
glucose in the cell to release energy.

 All organisms need energy for living.

For growth, reproduction, response,
movement, breathing, digestion and
excretion.

 Energy is required for various processes

which occur in the cell such as:
1. Cell division for growth.
2. Formation of gamete for reproduction.
3. Transmitting nerve impulses for response
and coordination.
4. Contraction of muscles for movement.
5. Synthesis of proteins, hormones, lipids
and enzymes.

Types of respiration
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Respiration
AR is the breaking down of glucose in the
presence of oxygen to release chemical
energy.
Occur in mitochondria and cytoplasm of
cells.
In AR, the glucose is completely oxidised
to release all the chemical energy in the
glucose.

Aerobic respiration
Some of the chemical energy released is
changed to heat.
And the rest is stored in the form of
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) a carrier of
chemical energy.

Aerobic respiration
ATP can be regenerated by combining
inorganic phosphate (P) to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) using the chemical
energy obtained from the oxidation of
food.
ATP ADP + P + energy

Aerobic respiration
When body cells need energy, ATP
molecules will be hydrolysed to yield
energy, a molecule of ADP and an
inorganic phosphate.
The energy from ATP can be used to carry
out biologycal processes.

Aerobic respiration
During AR,at least 38 molecules of ATP or
2898kJ of energy is released .
AR can be represented as the following
equation :
Glucose + Oxygen CO2 + water + energy

December 7, 2014

What Does ATP Do for You?

It supplies YOU with ENERGY!

Copyright Cmassengale

How Do We Get Energy From

ATP?
By breaking the
high- energy
bonds between
the last two
phosphates in
ATP
Copyright Cmassengale

Anaerobic respiration
Is a type of cell respiration which occurs
in the absence of oxygen to release energy.
In AnR, glucose is broken down in the
absence of oxygen to release chemical
energy.
Glucose is not completely broken down.
Not all energy in glucose is released.

Anaerobic respiration
Some of the energy in glucose is stored in
the product of anaerobic respiration.
Only a small amount of energy (2
molecules of ATP) is released.
AnR occurs in the cytoplasm.

Anaerobic respiration in human

muscles
Occur in human muscle cell during
vigorous exercise or vigorous activities.
During AnR, glucose is broken down in the
absence of oxygen to form lactic acid and
energy for muscle contraction.

Glucose lactic acid + energy

C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + Energy (150 kJ

or 2 ATP)

 Lactic acid accumulates in the muscle cells

causing muscular ache.
An oxygen debt is incurred because the
maximum rate of oxygen used is less than
the oxygen supplied.
Oxygen is required to pay off the oxygen
debt.

 Rapid breathing continues after the

vigorous exercise to obtain sufficient
oxygen.
The oxygen will break down the lactic acid
built up in the muscle.
Oxygen oxidises the lactic acid to carbon
dioxide, water and energy.

 When all the lactic acid is oxidised, the

oxygen debt is said to be paid.
Oxygen
Lactic acid ----- CO2 + H2O + energy

Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast

Yeast carries out both aerobic and
anaerobic respiration.
AnR in yeast is called fermentation.
During fermentation, yeast secretes the
enzyme zymase which hydrolyses glucose
in the absence of oxygen to form ethanol,
carbon dioxide and energy.

zimase
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 210KJ

 The enzyme zymase secreted by the yeast

speeds up the fermentation process.
Only a small amount of energy is released.
A large amount is still stored in the ethanol
as chemical energy.
This is because the glucose is not
completely broken down in anaerobic
respiration.

 The products of fermentation such as

carbon dioxide is used as a raising agent in
baking bread while ethanol is used to
produce alcoholic drinks such as wine.

Table comparison AR & AnR

The Respiratory Structures

and Breathing Mechanisms in
Humans and Animals

Organism
Protozoa
Human
Insects
Fish
Amphibian

Respiratory structures
Plasma membrane
Lungs
Tracheal system
Gills
Skin and lungs

 The respiratory surfaces are adapted for

maximum gaseous exchange by increasing
the total surface area.
The larger the surface area of the
respiratory surfaces, the higher the rate of
diffusion for gaseous exchange.

Characteristics of respiratory
surfaces for gaseous exchange
a) Large total surface area of respiratory
surface.
b) Moist respiratory surfaces.
c) Thin wall of respiratory surfaces.

Respiratory structures and

breathing mechanism in humans
and Organisms
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Protozoan (Amoeba sp)

Insects
Fish
Amphibians (frog)
Human

Protozoan (Amoeba sp)

Very small in size, the total surface area to
volume ration is large.
Hence, gaseous exchange by simple diffusion
rapidly across the thin plasma membrane.
Oxygen diffuses into the cell and carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the cell through
plasma membrane down the
concentration gradient.

 gambar

Large organisms: use

special respiratory
structures, eg.

Gills in fish

Skin in frog
Skin
Gills
Lungs

Lungs in mammals

Insects
The respiratory structure of the insects is
called a tracheal system.
The tracheal system consists of a network
of air tubes called tracheae which open to
the outside through small pores spiracles.
On the thorax and abdomen of an insect are
ten pairs of spiracles.

 Each spiracle is protected by valves which

also control the opening and closing of the
spiracle.
Each trachea branches and rebranches
throughout the whole body to form a
network of tracheae.
Each trachea is supported by rings of
chitin throughout its length to prevent the
air tubes from collapsing or become
deflated.

 The trachea branches into very fine tubes

called tracheoles which end in the fluid
around the cells.
Tracheoles do not have rings of chitin and
end at the body cells.
Gaseous exchange occurs between the
tracheoles and body cells by diffusion.

 Oxygen diffuses from the tracheoles into

the body cells and carbon dioxide diffuses
out from the body cells into the tracheoles
to removed from the body.
The adaptations of tracheoles for gaseous
exchange:
Numerous and very fine tracheoles. (LSA)
Moist tracheole walls
Thin epithelial walls of tracheoles.

 A few types of insects like grasshopper

have air sacs inside their tracheal system.
These air sacs contain air to provide
respiration gas during vigorous activities.

The breathing mechanism of

insects.
During inhalation
1. Abdominal muscle relax.
2. The valve of the spiracle open.
3. Pressure inside tracheae decrease.
4. Air is forced into the body through the
spiracles.

During exhalation
1. Abdominal muscle contract.
2. The volume decreases, the pressure in the
tracheae increases.
3. Air is forced to move out through the
spiracles.

Tracheal System in Insects

(May serve as
storage reserve)

Each cell has a nearly direct means

of gas exchange via the tracheal system
(2-4 spiracles on the thorax, 6-8 on abdomen).

What is the advantage of such a

system for a small, fast animal?
Do insects have respiratory pigments in
their hemolymph? Significance?

p. 984

Fish
Aquatic animals such as fish have
specialised respiratory structures called
gills for breathing.
A fish has four pairs of gills which are
covered by the operculum.

 Each gill consists of a small rod of bone

called gill arch. The outer edge of each gill
arch bears a double row of gill filaments.
The inner edge of the gill arch has
numerous small spines called gill rakers to
strain food particles which might pass
through the gill slits and damage the gill
filaments. (gmbr)

 The surface of each gill filament has many

plate-like projections called lamella to
increase surface area.
These gill lamella are richly supplied with
a network of blood capillaries for gaseous
exchange.
Gaseous exchange occurs at the gill
filaments.

Adaptation of gill filaments for

gaseous exchange
Many plate-like projections (lamella)
Thin epithelial walls of the gill filaments.
A network of blood capillaries.

The breathing mechanism

During inhalation (flow of water into the mouth)

1.
2.
3.
4.

Mouth open.
Floor of mouth is lowered.
Pressure in the mouth cavity decreases.
Outside pressure (higher) presses the
operculum to the side of fish.
5. Operculum closes.
6. Water enters the mouth.

During exhalation (flow of water through the gills)

1. Mouth closes.
2. Floor of the mouth is raised .
3. Volume of pharynx cavity decreases.
4. Pressure in the mouth cavity increases.
5. Operculum opens.
6. Water flows through the gill slits, over the gill
lamella.
7. Gaseous exchange occurs.
8. Water flows out through the operculum.

Gill Structure in Fish

p. 983
If fish gills are so efficient at gas exchange, why cant most fish survive out of
water?

Gill Ventilation in Fish

In order to have
bulk flow of water
over the respiratory
surface, what must
be created?

Discuss the negative pressure component in gill ventilation.

Discuss the positive pressure component of gill ventilation.

Countercurrent Mechanism for

Gas Exchange
p. 984

Nearly 80% of the O2

is removed from the
water as it passes
over the gills.

Is this more or less

efficient than gas
exchange at the
Draw a lungs?
similar picture
Why ? showing blood flow and water flow in the
same direction. How would oxygen diffusion change?

Amphibians (Frog)
Breath through skin, mouth and lungs.
In the water, the frogs skin functions as
the respiratory surface for gaseous
exchange.
The frog breathes through its lungs when it
is active.
The lungs of the frog consist of a pair of air
sacs in the thoracic cavity.

Adaptations of skin for gaseous

exchange.
Thin skin.
Moist skin.
Supplied with many blood capillaries.

Adaptation of mouth for

gaseous exchange.
The floor of the mouth cavity always move
up and down to enable the air to enter into
the mouth through the nostrils.
Thin lining of the mouth cavity with many
blood capillaries increases the rate of
diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
the mouth cavity.

Adaptation of lungs for gaseous

exchange
The inner walls of the lungs are folded.
Thin walls.
A layer of moisture on the walls of the
lungs.
A network of blood capillaries.

The breathing mechanism of

frog.
Inhalation
1. Floor of mouth lowers.
2. Volume inside the mouth increases.
3. Hence pressure decreases.
4. Air enters through nostrils into the mouth.
5. Nostrils closes.
6. Floor of mouth is raised up.
7. Pressure increases.

8. Glottis opens.
9. Air passes into the lungs.
10. Gaseous exchange occurs.

Exhalation
1. Nostrils opens.
2. Air flows out of the mouth.
3. Lungs bulge upwards.
4. Glottis opens.
5. Lungs shrink due to its elasticity.
6. Air flows out.

Mechanics of
Respiration:
positive pressure
breathing
Do amphibians have
completely separate
pulmonary and systemic
circulatory systems?
What other organ(s) may be
used in respiration?

Human
The human respiratory system consists of
the nasal cavity pharynx, trachea, bronchi
bronchioles and lungs.
Air enters through the nostrils pharynx
trachea bronchi bronchioles alveolus
blood capillary.
The trachea is supported by rings of
cartilage (C-shaped) to prevent the tube
from collapsing during breathing.

 The lining on the walls of trachea consists

of two types of cells and goblet cells :
ciliated epithelial cells and goblet cells.
Ciliated epithelial cell have cilia while the
goblet cells secrete mucus.
Both cells help to trap dust and
microorganisms in the air inhaled from the
atmosphere and carried back up to the
pharynx.

 The trachea branches into two bronchi,

each bronchus goes to one lung.
Each bronchus branches into bronchioles,
which branch repeatedly into smaller and
smaller tubes and finally end in alveoli.
Gaseous exchange occurs at the alveolus
by simple diffusion.

Adaptation of alveolus for

gaseous exchange.

Large total surface area.

Thin walls of alveoli.
Walls of alveoli are moist.
A network of blood capillaries on the walls
of alveoli.

The breathing mechanism in

human.
Involves the action of intercostal muscles
and the action of the diaphragm muscles.
Between the ribs are two sets of intercostal
muscles, which are the internal intercostal
muscle and the external intercostal
muscle.
Below the lungs ia a layer of dome-shaped
diaphragm muscles which separates the
thorax from the abdomen.

Human Lungs: Structure and Function

28.19

The breathing mechanism in

human.
gambar

Lung tissue

How large are the respiratory

surfaces provided by the lungs ?

About half the size

of a tennis court.
Alveoli - a respiratory surface with a total
area of about 100 m2

Mechanism of Breathing

Animation

Gaseous Exchange in the alveoli

Red blood cell
Owing to concentration
differences:

Capillary from
pulmonary artery

Oxygen diffuses
into RBCs

Epithelium of
alveolus (1-cell thick)
Film of
moisture
Carbon dioxide
diffuses into
alveolus

Capillary to
pulmonary vein

The concept of gaseous

exchange across the respiratory
surfaces and the transport of
gases in human.
1. In humans, gaseous exchange occurs across the
surface of the alveolus and blood capillaries in the
lungs.
2. Gaseous exchange occurs by the process of
diffusion and involves oxygen and carbon
dioxide.

Process of gaseous exchange at

the alveolus
Inhaled air in the alveolus contains more
oxygen and less carbon dioxide compared
to the quantities in the blood capillaries of
the lungs.
Hence the partial pressure of oxygen is
higher in the air of the alveolus compared
to the partial pressure of oxygen in the
blood capillaries.

 The higher partial pressure of oxygen in

the alveolus causes the oxygen to dissolve
in the layer of moisture on the wall of the
alveolus and diffuse out of the alveolus
into the blood capillaries.
Hence the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide in the blood capillaries entering the
alveolus is higher than the partial pressure
of carbon dioxide in the alveolus.

 Then, carbon dioxide diffuses out from the

blood capillaries into the alveolus and is
expelled during exhalation.

Gaseous exchange at body cells

Higher partial pressure of oxygen in blood
capillaries caused the oxygen to diffuse out
of the blood capillary into the body cells.
Higher partial pressure of carbon dioxide
in body cells caused the carbon dioxide to
diffuse out of the body cells into blood
capillary.

Composition of inhaled and

exhaled air
Gambar

7. 4 Regulatory mechanism of
respiration
Respiration rate.
Breathing rate (16 18 x per minute) (30)
Heart beat rate (60 70 x per minute)
(120)
Ventilation rate The volume of air
breathed per minute. (The rate of gaseous
exchange between alveolus and blood
capillary).

BIO FACTS
Ventilation rate :
active 50 to 60 dm3 per minute.
Normal - 5 dm3 per minute.

 When someone is in emergency situation,

breathing rate and heart beat rate is
increased to provide a higher respiration
rate to the cells.
High respiration rate is needed to provide
more energy.
In the mean time, adrenal gland also
secrete adreline hormone to increase the
heart beat so that more glucose and oxygen
can be supplied to muscle cells.

Regulatory mechanism of
oxygen and carbon dioxide
content in the body

 Breathing is controlled by an automatically

mechanism.
The breathing control centre of humans is
located in the medulla oblongata of the
brain.
The breathing control centre consists of a
special group of cells called central
chemoreceptors.

 The central chemoreceptors in the

breathing control centre regulate the
carbon dioxide content in the blood.

Mechanism nye.
1. Vigorous activity.
2. Carbon dioxide increases because of the
increased in the rate of respiration.
3. High concentration of CO2 in blood
lowers the pH value (increase the acidity).
4. How they become acidic? ()

5. The presence of high concentration of

hydrogen ions (low pH) stimulates the
central chemoreceptors to emit nerve
impulses.
6. The nerve impulses are sent from the
breathing control centre to the intercostal
muscles and the muscles of the diaphragm.

7. The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm

muscles contract rapidly causing the rate of
breathing and the rate of ventilation to
increase.
8. The increased rate of breathing and
ventilation enable more oxygen to be
supplied and more carbon dioxide to be
removed until the level of pH in the blood
returns to normal.

1 lagi cara atau mechanism

nya
Besides the central chemoreceptors, there is
a special group of cells at the base of the
carotid artery and aortic arch called
peripheral chemoreceptors which are
also involved in the regulatory mechanism
of carbon dioxide and oxygen content in
the body.
Peripheral chemoreceptor is sensitive to
carbon dioxide content and blood pH.

 The periphery chemoreceptors are more

sensitive to changes in the oxygen content
in the blood.
A decrease in the concentration of oxygen
in the blood during vigorous activity or
when at a high altitude place (top of
mountain) will stimulate the peripheral
receptors to emit nerve impulses.

 These nerve impulses are then sent to the

breathing control centre in the medula
oblongata.
The breathing control centre responds by
sending nerve impulses to the respiratory
muscles (intercostal muscles and
diaphragm muscles).
The action of muscles become more rapid.

 This increases the rate of breathing and the

rate of ventilation.
Nerve impulses also sent to the heart
causing the rate of heartbeat to increase.
This causes more oxygen and glucose to be
carried

The importance of maintaining a

healthy respiratory system

Tar - cancer
3,4-benzo() pyrena. - cancer
Carbon monoxide.
Irritant substances such as carbon particles
Oxides of nitrogen.

http://krupp.wcc.hawaii.edu/BIOL100/present/respirat/index.htm

Diffusion of O2 and CO2

When a cell carrying O2
nears another cell that is
lacking in O2, diffusion
will occur
When a cell is lacking in
O2 and nears an O2 rich
region, diffusion will
occur
The same process
happens with CO2

Summary of diffusion in the lungs and tissue

So now we understand how this diffusion works

between neighboring cells
The next question is...

Transporting O2 and other stuff

(The Circulatory System)
A liquid conduit containing
the liquid blood
This Bulk Flow is necessary
to bring O2 to every cell in
the body
Also necessary to protect
and upkeep cells
The liquid that is circulated
around has a number of
components...

Human Lungs

Human Alveoli

Gas Exchange

20.3 Control of Ventilation in Man

Control of Breathing
Respiratory centre

Chemoreceptor

pCO2

Control of Ventilation in Man

- Rate and depth of breathing is controlled by the
respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata of
the hind-brain by changes in blood CO2
concentration:
Blood CO2 in blood
detected by chemoreceptors
nerve impulses
respiratory centre in medulla

Control of Ventilation in Man

Control of Ventilation in Man

- Rate and depth of breathing is controlled by the
respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata of
the hind-brain by changes in blood CO2
concentration:
Blood CO2 in blood
detected by chemoreceptors
nerve impulses
respiratory centre in medulla
phrenic & thoracic nerves
diaphragm & intercostal muscle contractions
Inspiration

Control of Ventilation in Man

 stretch receptors in lungs stimulated

vagus
expiratory centre in medulla to switch off
the inspiratory centre
expiration takes place

20.3 Control of Ventilation in Man

 stretch receptors in lungs stimulated

vagus
expiratory centre in medulla to switch off
the inspiratory centre
expiration takes place
stretch receptors not stimulated
expiratory centre switched off
inspiratory centre switched on
inspiration again

Control of Ventilation in Man

 The ventral portion of the breathing centre

is the inspiratory centre;
the remainder is the expiratory centre
Chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic
bodies of the blood system

 The breathing centre may also be stimulated

by impulses from the forebrain resulting in
a conscious increase or decrease in
breathing rate.
The main stimulus for ventilation is carbon
dioxide;
Changes in oxygen concentration have
relatively little effect.

 At high altitudes the reduced atmospheric

pressure makes it more difficult to load the
haemoglobin with oxygen.
In an attempt to obtain sufficient oxygen a
mountaineer takes very deep breaths.
This forces more carbon dioxide out of the body
and the level of carbon dioxide in the blood
therefore falls.
The inspiratory centre is no longer stimulated
and breathing becomes increasingly laboured,
causing great fatigue.

Gas Exchange in
Plants
28.6
28.3

Epidermis dry and impermeable

large intercellular spaces between spongy mesophyll cells
means each cell has direct contact with air
air enters the leaf through gates called stomata, controlled
by guard cells
humidity within leaf near 100%, water loss is minimized

How do stomata work?

28.5

Thickened walls along the inside edges force guard cells

closed when cells lack water pressure (low turgor)
no water loss and no gas exchange

When turgid, thickened walls cause a pore to open between

guard cells
water loss (transpiration) and gas exchange occur

Stems and Roots Must Exchange CO2 and

O2 also
28.8

Pores in stems called lenticels allow gas

exchange
many cells of living stems are dead (providing
strucural support only)

Root can be deprived of oxygen in

waterlogged soils