NE 125: Lecture 14

Mechanical Behaviour: Elastic and Plastic Deformation (contd)

Instructor:
William K. OKeefe, P.Eng.
wkokeefe@engmail.uwaterloo.ca

Teaching Assistant (TA):

Hua (Leanne) Wei
h6wei@engmail.uwaterloo.ca

Office Hours:
Mondays 1:30 to 2:20 RCH 106
Reminder: Mid term exam Tuesday February 12, 7 9 PM
D. Aasen to W. Lee
MC 4059
S. Legge to N. Zaver MC 4061

Week 5
Reading: Shackelford 6th Ed, Chapter 6; sections 6.4 - 6.6
Assignment 5 problem set due: 11 February 2008

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Review: Burgers Vectors for Slip Process

Slip Systems
We can define a Burgers vector for the slip processes for the various
crystal structures, in terms of the lattice parameters

a
b ( fcc)
110
2

3a
b (bcc)
111
2

b (hcp) a 1120

Eg. fcc
c

d
(111)
For fcc, the {111} planes have the greatest planar
density of atoms

a
b c
d e f

The <110> family of directions has the greatest

linear density
(111) plane

111 1 1 0

(4 x 3 = 12 slip systems)

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Sample Problem 1
Slip Systems

a
Eg. fcc
c

List the 12 slip systems for the fcc structure

d
(111)
For fcc, the {111} planes have the greatest planar
density of atoms

a
b c
d e f

The <110> family of directions has the greatest

linear density
(111) plane

111 1 1 0

(4 x 3 = 12 slip systems)

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Review: Burgers Vectors for Slip Process

Slip Systems

111 1 1 0

a
Eg. fcc

1111 01 11101 1
11 1 1 1 0 (11 1)101 (11 1)011
(1 1 1)110
(1 1 1)10 1 1 1 1011
( 1 11)110
( 1 11)101 1 1101 1
(111) 1 1 0

d
(111)

First you identify the non-parallel planes. Then find directions which give zero dot product.
Note that for the planes, we use one negative value but not those with two negative values
(or all three negative values) since members of these planes will be parallel with at least one
plane already cited.
Eg.

1 1 1

Is parallel with

11 1

(i.e. they are the same plane)

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Review: Burgers Vectors for Slip Process

Slip Systems
We can define a Burgers vector for the slip processes for the various
crystal structures, in terms of the lattice parameters

a
b ( fcc)
110
2

3a
b (bcc)
111
2

b (hcp) a 1120

Eg. bcc

For bcc the {110} plane has the greatest atomic

density and the
1 11 family has the greatest
linear density

110 1 11
( 12 slip systems)

Note that other slip systems are possible at elevated temperature for these crystal structures

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Sample Problem 2
Slip Systems (Shackelford 6-32)

List the 12 slip systems for the bcc structure

Eg. bcc

110 1 11
(12 slip systems)

For bcc the {110} plane has the greatest atomic density and the
family has the greatest linear density

1 11

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Review: Burgers Vectors for Slip Process

Slip Systems
We can define a Burgers vector for the slip processes for the various crystal
structures, in terms of the lattice parameters

a
b ( fcc)
110
2

3a
b (bcc)
111
2

b (hcp) a 1120

Eg. hcp

For bcc the {0001} plane has the greatest atomic

density and the 112 0 family has the greatest
linear density

110 1 11
(1 x 3 = 3 slip systems)

0001 11 20 0001 1210

(0001 ) 2110

Note that other slip systems are possible at elevated temperature for these crystal structures

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Review:

Components of shear stress exist in all directions

except for or = 90

Critical Resolved Shear Stress

Magnitude of resolved shear stress depends on

applied tensile stress and orientation of slip plane
and slip direction
Slip occurs when the resolved stress exceeds a
critical value (the critical resolved shear stress )

Normal to plane

Slip direction

R cos cos
(resolved shear stress)

If more than one slip direction is possible, the direction which gives the maximum value of
Cos()cos() will result in slip since the resolved shear stress in that direction will be greatest
Slip (yielding) will occur when the resolved shear stress exceeds the critical resolved shear
stress

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Review: Plastic Deformation and Dislocations

Mechanical Properties

Plastic Deformation is permanent deformation resulting from the movement of dislocations

The dislocation density increases significantly during plastic deformation

Plastic deformation requires the movement of dislocations. Therefore, inhibition of the
movement of dislocations can delay the onset of plastic deformation and enhance
material properties:
- Yield strength and Tensile strength
- ductility reduced
- plastic deformation may diminish other properties (eg. conductivity)

Mechanisms of Strengthening (Metals):

1.

Cold Working

2.

Grain Size Reduction

3.

Solid Solution Strengthening

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Plastic Deformation and Dislocations

Lattice Strain
Most of the energy associated with the shear work inducing the dislocation is dissipated as heat. However,
some energy is stored in the lattice as strain energy

Atoms in compression relative to

ideal crystal lattice (compressive
strain field)

Residual Stress
All metals and alloys have some
Inherent dislocations and strain
fields due to thermal stresses from
cooling during casting processes
Strain fields are important in the
strengthening of materials

Slip plane
Atoms experience tension relative
to ideal crystal (tensile strain
field)

[1] graphic obtained and adapted from Shackelford Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers, 6th Edition; used by permission

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Plastic Deformation and Dislocations

Strain Fields

Two Edge dislocations on the same slip plane exert repulsive forces due to their like strain fields.
Dislocations with opposite sign will annihilate each other to restore the crystal lattice

repulsion
compression

tension

The presence of a dislocation may hinder the movement of another

dislocation due to residual stresses

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Plastic Deformation and Dislocations

Strain Hardening and Cold Working
Strain Hardening The material becomes stronger and less ductile when plastically deformed
due to reduced mobility of dislocations (dislocation density increases during plastic
deformation)
Cold working - A mechanical treatment in which dislocations are intentionally induced in a
metal in order to mitigate the movement of dislocations when the material is subjected to an
applied stress during application. i.e. The material is intentionally plastically deformed.

YS

A A
%CW 100% 0 d
A0

[MPa]

% CW
The presence of dislocations inhibits the movement of other dislocations

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Plastic Deformation and Dislocations

Strain Fields and Solution Hardening
We can exploit the inhibition of the movement of dislocations due to strain fields
Inducing strain fields in the material delays onset of plastic deformation and will increase the
yield strength (and tensile strength) of materials

Solution Hardening: Introducing impurity atoms of very large or very small diameter relative
to metal to induce local strain fields

YS
[MPa]

Wt % impurity

Compressive strain field

induced by large impurity
atom

Tensile lattice strain field induced by small

Impurity atom substituted into lattice

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Plastic Deformation and Dislocations

Grain Size
Grain boundaries inhibit the propagation of dislocations
Grains typically have different crystallographic orientations, Therefore dislocation will have
to change direction of motion

Discontinuity at grain boundary results in discontinuity of slip planes. Linear density in slip
direction changes (increases dislocation energy requirement)

High angle grain boundary often

results in the creation of new
dislocations at grain boundaries
Instead
of
the
dislocation
propagating across the grain
boundary; strain fields are
generated

Low angle grain boundary

High angle grain boundary

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Plastic Deformation and Dislocations

Grain Size
Smaller grains result in an enhancement of tensile and yield strength and a
corresponding reduction in ductility. Small grains result in a harder and stronger
material.

Smaller particles have greater surface area to volume ratio:

1.

Greater boundary surface area per unit volume of crystallite

2.

Greater surface energy at grain boundaries increases cohesion in solid

y 0k y d

Hall-Petch Equation

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Plastic Deformation and Dislocations

Recovery and Recrystallization
The properties of materials that have been strain hardened (cold worked) can be
restored to original state by thermal treatment (annealing)

Recovery (De-stressing )
Increasing the temperature to about 1/3 to of the melting point of the substance
enhances atomic diffusion. Strain energy stored in dislocations is dissipated by the
annihilation of dislocations from atomic movement (diffusion).
Some dislocations are removed from specimen but material is still in a relatively high
energy state due to residual stress.

Recrystallization
At elevated temperature, grains dissolve and re-crystallize in lower energy (strain free)
equiaxed grains. Dislocation density is significantly reduced.

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Plastic Deformation and Dislocations

Grain growth and Recrystallization Temperature
Heating the sample to elevated temperature facilitates grain growth due to the
thermodynamic driving force to minimize surface energy

Recrystallization Temperature - the temperature at which it takes 1

hour for the recrystallization process to complete

Recrystallization can not occur

below a minimum amount of plastic
deformation (cold working)

Trc

Minimum Trc

% CW

Migration of grain
boundary

d n d 0 Kt
n

Empirical model of grain size as a function of

time. (many polycrystalline materials)
Direction of diffusion

Large grains grow at the expense of small grains. Impurities in alloys tend to segregate and
accumulate at grain boundaries, inhibiting recrystallization rate.

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Material Properties Continued: Hardness

Hardness is a direct measure of a materials resistance to plastic deformation. Not surprisingly,
a materials hardness is highly correlated with its yield strength

TS (MPa) 3.45xHB

Hardness Test
An indentation is made in the specimen utilizing a specific indentor
At a pre-determined load
The dimensions of the indentation are ascertained and a hardness
number is calculated from the dimensions and the load

Most common hardness tests:

1.

Brinell (HB or BHN)

2.

Vickers

3.

Knoop

4.

Rockwell Hardness

5.

Rockwell Superficial Hardness

Illustration from Shackelford Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers 6th Ed., Used by permission

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Hardness
The various hardness tests differ in the type of indentor and standard loads and the nature of
the calculation

Brinell

Vickers

BHN

D D D d
2

P
VHN 1.72 2
d

Knoop Microhardness

Rockwell

2P

KHN 14.2

D = diameter of indentor
D = depth of indent
Indentor is a 10 mm sphere

Diamond pyramid shaped indentor; d is diagonal

P
l2

Diamond Pyramid shaped indentor, l is diagonal

Various indentors and loads

Scale symbol defines test parameters: indentor and load

eg. 80 HRB = rockwell hardness of 80 on B scale (1/16th in sphere with 100 kg load)
60 HR30W = superficial hardness of 60 on the 30 W scale (1/8 inch ball with 30 kg load)

NE 125:
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Sample Problem #3
Hardness
(Shackelford 6th Ed. Problem 6-47)

A Ti-6AL-4V orthopedic implant material gives a 3.27 mm diameter impression when a 10 mm

diameter tungsten carbide sphere is applied to the surface with a 3000 kg load. What is the
Brinell Hardness number of this alloy?

BHN

BHN

2P

D D D 2 d 2

23000

10 10 102 3.27 2

347

BHN