THE STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS

RK Chowdary
DEPT. OF DENTALMATERIALS
SOLIDS
 Based on the internal structure solids
are classified into 2 types.

1. Amorphous solids: have haphazard

atomic arrangement, e.g. glasses

2. Crystalline solids: have a highly

regular and well defined atomic
structure, e.g. metals.
SOLIDS
 Atoms are held together by a variety
of forces. They are,

1. primary bonds (strong)

E.g.: ionic, covalent and metallic.

2. secondary bonds (weak).

E.g.: Vander waal’s forces
 PRIMARY BONDS
Ionic bonds
 These are formed by the transfer of valence
electrons from one atom to the other.

 The atom, which transfers its valence electrons,

becomes ion with a positive charge, called
“cation”.

 The other atom, which accepts electrons to

complete its outer electron shell and so become
negatively charged ion, called “anion”.

 Both are then more stable and reactive.

PRIMARY BONDS
Ionic bonds
E.g.: NaCl

 The atomic number of sodium is 11. Sodium transfers one

of its outer most electrons to chlorine, atomic number is
17, and becomes positive ion called cation.

 Na Na+ + 1e-

 Chlorine accepts that electron and becomes negative ion

called anion.
 Cl + 1e- Cl-

 Electrostatic attraction can occur between cation and

anion forms NaCl.
PRIMARY BONDS
Ionic bonds
 Electrostatic attraction can occur
between cation and anion forms NaCl.
PRIMARY BONDS
Ionic bonds
Characteristic properties
 These are heat resistant & insoluble in

organic solvents.

 Soluble in ionizing solvents such as

water, acids & alkalies.

 Can conduct an electric current easily.

 Covalent bonds
 These are formed by sharing of outer
valence electrons of one atom with the
other atom.

 E.g.: Cl2, CH4, H2 etc.

Covalent bonds
 Two chlorine atoms may share a pair of
electrons, thus completing their outer
shells of eight electrons and so become
a more stable chlorine molecule.
Covalent bonds
Characteristic properties

 Insoluble in water.

 Strong in nature.

 Can withstand higher temperatures.

 Metallic bonds
 The valence electrons from each metallic atom
form an electron cloud.

 The positive ions formed by the loss of electrons

and the electron cloud itself produce strong
forces of attraction bonding the metal together.

 The mobility of electrons contribute the ability of

metals to conduct heat & electricity.
 SECONDARY BONDS
 In contrast with primary bonds, secondary
bonds do not share electrons but charge
variations among molecules or atomic
groups induce polar forces that attract the
molecules.

1. Hydrogen bonding
2. Vanderwaal’s forces
 SECONDARY BONDS
Hydrogen bonding
E.g.:H2O molecule
 Two hydrogen atoms are attached by oxygen atom.

 These bonds are covalent as they share electrons.

 The hydrogen bond, which is, associated positive

charge of hydrogen caused by polarization
(Dipoles).
 It is an important example of this type of
secondary bonding.
 SECONDARY BONDS
Vanderwaal’s forces
 These forces form the basis of dipole
attraction in a symmetric molecules for
example inert gasses.

 A fluxuated dipole is formed, which will

attract other similar dipoles that is with in
an atom there is accumulation of atoms
in one half which leads to negative
polarity and other half, positive polarity.
 SPACING OF ATOMS
Factors influence the distance between atoms:

1. Forces of attraction due to inter-atomic

bonding.

2. Forces of repulsion between the electrons

of neighboring atoms.
Crystalline solids
 These have a highly regular and well
defined atomic structure in a space
lattice.

 The atoms may be held together by

either ionic or covalent or metallic
bonds.
Crystalline solids
Space lattice
 A space lattice is the arrangement of
atoms in space such that every atom is
situated similarly to every other atom.

 The simplest way to study these

configurations is to consider a unit cell.
Crystalline solids
Unit cell
 A unit cell is the smallest repeating unit
that is contained in a crystal.

 There are about 14 different space lattices

but only few are dental interest. They are,

1. Cubic System
2. Hexagonal system
3. Tetragonal system
Crystalline solids
Cubic System
 The length of axes are equal (a=b=c)

0
 The interfacial angles equal 90 .

 3 types,
 Simple Cubic space lattice
 Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
 Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
Crystalline solids
Cubic System

Simple Cubic Space Lattice:

 This unit cell has one atom at each
corner of the cube.
Crystalline solids
Cubic System
Body Centered Cubic (BCC):

 This unit cell has one atom at each

corner of the cube & one in the center.

E.g.: Iron below 9100C.

Crystalline solids
Cubic System
Face Centered Cubic (FCC):

 The unit cell is a cube with an atom

at each of eight corners & one in the
center of each of the six faces, but
none in the center of the cube.
Crystalline solids
Hexagonal system
 The axes ‘a’ equal ‘b’ but is
unequal to ‘c’.

 The angle alpha & beta

0
equals 90 , but the angle gamma unequal
0.
120

 The hexagonal close packed structure has the

densest packing of atoms.
E.g.: Zn, and Mg.
Crystalline solids
Tetragonal System
 The axes a equal b but is unequal to c.

0
 The interfacial angles are equal to 90 .
 ATOMIC PACKING
The simple cubic unit cell:

 Each atom at each 8 corners is associated

with 8 surrounding unit cells which can
share each corner.

 Therefore, each atom has 1/8 of its volume

in each of these cells.
 Amorphous solids
 Amorphous means literally without form.

 E.g.: Glasses and Polymers.

 In these the atoms are randomly arranged

with out a form.
 Classification of Solids
3 types.
 Polymers: Long chain molecules, consisting of
many repeating units.
 -A–A–A–A–A–

 Metallic materials: Good thermal & Electrical

conductivity.

 Ceramic Materials: compounds of metallic &

non-metallic elements.