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By:
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EEE2009
Communications
Contents
Introduction to Communication Systems
Analogue Modulation
AM, DSBSC, VSB, SSB, FM, PM, Narrow band FM, PLL Demodulators, and FLL Loops
Sampling Systems
Time and Frequency Division multiplexing systems, Nyquist Principle, PAM, PPM, and PWM.
Principles of Noise
Random variables, White Noise, Shot, Thermal and Flicker Noise, Noise in cascade
amplifiers
Case Studies
Spread Spectrum Systems, Mobile radio concepts, GSM and Multiple Access Schemes
Mobile radio
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Multiplexing
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Radio Transmission
Aerial dimensions are of the same order as the wavelength, , of the signal
(e.g. quarter wave /4, /2 dipoles).
is related to frequency by
c
f
3 x10 8
=
3 x10 3
Aerials of this size are impractical although some transmissions at Very Low Frequency (VLF) for specialist
applications are made.
A modulation process described as 'up-conversion' (similar to FDM) allows the baseband signal to be
translated to higher 'radio' frequencies.
Generally 'low' radio frequencies 'bounce' off the ionosphere and travel long distances around the earth,
high radio frequencies penetrate the ionosphere and make space communications possible.
The ability to 'up convert' baseband signals has implications on aerial dimensions and design, long distance
terrestrial communications, space communications and satellite communications. Background 'radio' noise
is also an important factor to be considered.
In a similar content, optical (fibre optic) communications is made possible by a modulation process in which
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an optical light source is modulated by an information source.
Networks
A baseband system which is essentially point-to-point
could be operated in a network. Some forms of access
control (multiplexing) would be desirable otherwise the
performance would be limited. Analogue
communications networks have been in existence for a
long time, for example speech radio networks for
ambulance, fire brigade, police authorities etc.
For example, 'digital speech' communications, in which
the analogue speech signal is converted to a digital
signal via an analogue-to-digital converter give a form
more convenient for transmission and processing.
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What is Modulation?
In modulation, a message signal, which contains the information is used to control the
parameters of a carrier signal, so as to impress the information onto the carrier.
The Messages
The message or modulating signal may be either:
analogue denoted by m(t)
digital denoted by d(t) i.e. sequences of 1's and 0's
The message signal could also be a multilevel signal, rather than binary; this is not
considered further at this stage.
The Carrier
The carrier could be a 'sine wave' or a 'pulse train'.
Consider a 'sine wave' carrier:
vc t = Vc cosc t + c
If the message signal m(t) controls amplitude gives AMPLITUDE MODULATION AM
If the message signal m(t) controls frequency gives FREQUENCY MODULATION FM
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If the message signal m(t) controls phase- gives PHASE MODULATION PM or M
The types of modulation produced, i.e. ASK, FSK and PSK are sometimes described as binary
or 2 level, e.g. Binary FSK, BFSK, BPSK, etc. or 2 level FSK, 2FSK, 2PSK etc.
Thus there are 3 main types of Digital Modulation:
ASK, FSK, PSK.
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and p t
pt
p t
E
T
E ,0 t
0, t T
2E
T
sinc
n 1
n
2
cos n
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What is Demodulation?
Demodulation is the reverse process (to modulation) to recover the message signal
m(t) or d(t) at the receiver.
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vc(t) = Vc cos(ct), peak amplitude = Vc, carrier frequency c radians per second.
Since c = 2fc, frequency = fc Hz where fc = 1/T.
Amplitude Modulation AM
In AM, the modulating signal (the message signal) m(t) is 'impressed' on to the
amplitude of the carrier.
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In order to make the analysis and indeed the testing of AM systems easier, it is common to make
m(t) a test signal, i.e. a signal with a constant amplitude and frequency given by
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m t
V m cos
VDC is a variable voltage, which can be set between 0 Volts and +V Volts. This
schematic diagram is very useful; from this all the important properties of AM and
various forms of AM may be derived.
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Equations for AM
From the diagram v s t = VDC + mt cosc t where VDC is the DC voltage that can
be varied. The equation is in the form Amp cos ct and we may 'see' that the amplitude
is a function of m(t) and VDC. Expanding the equation we get:
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Equations for AM
Now let m(t) = Vm cos mt, i.e. a 'test' signal,
Using the trig identity
we have
cosAcosB =
v s t = VDC cosc t +
1
cos A + B + cos A B
2
Vm
V
cosc + m t + m cosc m t
2
2
Components:
Amplitude:
VDC
Vm/2
Vm/2
Frequency:
c
fc
c + m
fc + fm
c m
fc + fm
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vs t
V DC cos
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Vm
2
cos
Vm
2
cos
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This is multiplied by a carrier, cos ct. We effectively multiply (VDC + m(t)) waveform
by +1, -1, +1, -1, ...
The product gives the output signal vs t
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V DC m t cos
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Modulation Depth
Consider again the equation v s t = VDC + Vm cosm t cosc t , which may be written as
V
vs t = VDC 1+ m cosm t cosc t
VDC
The ratio is
Vm
Vm
m
=
VDC defined as the modulation depth, m, i.e. Modulation Depth
V DC
From an oscilloscope display the modulation depth for Double Sideband AM may be
determined as follows:
Vm
2Emax
VDC
2Emin
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Modulation Depth 2
2 E max 2 E min
Modulation Depth m =
2 E max + 2 E min
This may be shown to equal
2 E max
m=
Vm
as follows:
VDC
2 V DC V m
2 Emin 2 V DC V m
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Remember the 'shape' is used for convenience to distinguish low frequencies from high
frequencies in the baseband signal.
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Carrier
USB
Amplitude pk
VDC
Vm
2
Power
Power
V DC
2
V DC
2
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LSB
Vm
2
V
Vm
= m
8
2 2
2
m VDC
8
V
Vm
= m
8
2 2
m 2VDC
8
Total Power PT =
Carrier Power Pc
+ PUSB
+ PLSB
V
V
V
V
V
PT = DC + m + m = DC + m
2
8
8
2
4
V DC
Pc =
2
i.e.
and
VDC
m 2VDC
m 2VDC
PT =
+
+
2
8
8
m2
m2
PT = Pc + Pc
+ Pc
4
4
or
m2
PT = Pc 1+
2
Either of these forms may be useful. Since both USB and LSB contain the same information a
useful ratio which shows the proportion of 'useful' power to total power is
m2
Pc
PUSB
4
=
PT
m2
Pc 1+
2
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m2
=
4 + 2m 2
0.3 = 0.0215
m2
=
4 + 2m 2 4 + 20.32
2
Hence,
Hence, on average only about 2.15% of the total power transmitted may be regarded
as 'useful' power. ( 95.7% of the total power is in the carrier!)
m2
1
=
Even for a maximum modulation depth of m = 1 for DSBAM the ratio
4 + 2m 2 6
i.e. only 1/6th of the total power is 'useful' power (with 2/3 of the total power in the
carrier).
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Example
Suppose you have a portable (for example you carry it in your ' back pack') DSBAM transmitter
which needs to transmit an average power of 10 Watts in each sideband when modulation depth
m = 0.3. Assume that the transmitter is powered by a 12 Volt battery. The total power will be
m2
m2
PT = Pc + Pc
+ Pc
4
4
m2
410
40
= 444.44 Watts
where Pc
= 10 Watts, i.e. Pc =
=
2
2
4
m
0.3
Hence, total power PT = 444.44 + 10 + 10 = 464.44 Watts.
Hence, battery current (assuming ideal transmitter) = Power / Volts =
i.e. a large and heavy 12 Volt battery.
464.44 amps!
12
Suppose we could remove one sideband and the carrier, power transmitted would be
10 Watts, i.e. 0.833 amps from a 12 Volt battery, which is more reasonable for a
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portable
radio transmitter.
The type of SSB may be SSBAM (with a 'large' carrier component), SSBDimC or
SSBSC depending on VDC at the input. A sequence of spectral diagrams are shown
on the next page.
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As shown, with practical filters some part of the rejected sideband (the LSB in this
case) will be present in the SSB signal. A method which eases the problem is to
produce SSBSC from DSBSC and then add the carrier to the SSB signal.
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vs t = VDC cosc t +
Vm
V
cosc + m t + m cosc m t
2
2
The SSB filter removes the LSB (say) and the output is
vs t = VDC cosc t +
Again, note that the output may be
SSBAM, VDC large
SSBDimC, VDC small
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SSBSC, VDC = 0
Vm
cosc + m t
2
For SSBSC, output signal =
V
v s t = m cosc + m t
2
Power in SSB
m2
2
2
m
m
= PT = Pc + Pc
+ Pc
for DSBAM.
4
4
Hence, if Pc and m are known, the carrier power and power in one sideband may be
determined. Alternatively, since SSB signal =
vs t = VDC cosc t +
Vm
cosc + m t
2
V
V
V
V
PSSB = DC + m = DC + m
2
2
8
2 2
2
V DC
V
+ m
Power in SSB signal =
2
8
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This is obviously simple, low cost. But the AM input must be DSBAM with m << 1, i.e.
it does not demodulate DSBDimC, DSBSC or SSBxx.
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The diode characteristic is of the form i(t) = av + bv2 + cv3 + ..., where
v = VDC + mt cosc t
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2
= aVDC + amt cosc t + b VDC + 2VDC mt + mt cos c t +...
2
12
1
2
bVDC
2bVDC mt bmt 2
VDC
aV
+
am
t
cos
t
+
+
+
+
b
cos2c t + ...
=
DC
c
2
2
2
2
2
bVDC
+ bVDC mt i.e. the output contains m(t)
Signal out = aVDC +
2
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This is relatively more complex and more expensive. The Local Oscillator (LO) must be
synchronised or coherent, i.e. at the same frequency and in phase with the carrier in the
AM input signal. This additional requirement adds to the complexity and the cost.
However, the AM input may be any form of AM, i.e. DSBAM, DSBDimC, DSBSC or
SSBAM, SSBDimC, SSBSC. (Note this is a 'universal' AM demodulator and the
process
is similar to correlation the LPF is similar to an integrator).
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VX = AM input x LO
VDC + mt cos 2 c t
VDC + mt 1 + 1 cos2c t
Vx =
VDC VDC
mt mt
+
cos2c t +
+
cos2c t
2
2
2
2
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(continued
on next
page)
and
Note the AM input has been 'split into two' 'half' has moved or shifted up to
mt
V
mt
2 fc
cos2c t + VDC cos2c t and half shifted down to baseband, DC and
2
2
2
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Vout =
VDC mt
+
2
2
In general the LO may have a frequency offset, , and/or a phase offset, , i.e.
Vx =
1
cos A + B + cos A B
2
VDC + mt cos
2
+ c + t + + cosc + t + c t
mt
V
Vx = DC +
cos2c + t + + cos t +
2
2
VDC
V
cos2c + t + + DC cos t +
2
2
mt
mt
+
cos2c + t + +
cos t +
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2
2
Vx =
Vout
VDC
mt
=
cos( t + ) +
cost +
2
2
VDC mt
+
2
2
Consider now if is equivalent to a few Hz offset from the ideal LO. We may then
say
V
mt
Vout = DC cos t +
cos t
2
2
Obviously, if = 0 and
The output, if speech and processed by the human brain may be intelligible, but
would include a low frequency 'buzz' at , and the message amplitude would
fluctuate. The requirement = 0 is necessary for DSBAM.
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Vout =
VDC
mt
cos +
cos
2
2
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mt
0
cos = 0
if = (90 ), cos = 0 i.e. Vout =
2
2
2
2
if =
mt
The phase inversion if = may not be a problem for speech or music, but it may be
a problem if this type of modulator is used to demodulate PRK
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Thus the requirement for = 0 and = 0 is a 'strong' requirement for DSB amplitude
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modulation.
VDC cosc t +
Vm
cosc + m t
2
Hence
Vm
Vx = VDC cosc t +
cosc + m t cosc + t +
2
VDC
V
cos2c + t + + DC cos t +
2
2
V
V
+ m cos2c + m + t + + m cosm t
4
4
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VDC
Vm
cos t + + cosm t
2
4
Note, if = 0 and = 0,
VDC Vm
+ cosm t ,i.e. mt = Vm cosmt has been
2
4
recovered.
Consider first that 0, e.g. an offset of say 50Hz. Then
Vout =
VDC
V
cos t + m cosm t
2
4
If m(t) is a signal at say 1kHz, the output contains a signal a 50Hz, depending on VDC
and the 1kHz signal is shifted to 1000Hz - 50Hz = 950Hz.
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Hence, the effect of the offset is to shift the baseband output, up or down, by .
For speech, this shift is not serious (for example if we receive a 'whistle' at 1kHz and
the offset is 50Hz, you hear the whistle at 950Hz ( = +ve) which is not very
noticeable. Hence, small frequency offsets in SSB for speech may be tolerated.
Consider now that = 0, = 0, then
Vout =
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VDC
V
cos + m cosm t
2
4
Comments
In terms of 'evolution', early radio schemes and radio on long wave (LW)
and medium wave (MW) to this day use DSBAM with m < 1. The reason for
this was the reduced complexity and cost of 'millions' of receivers compared
to the extra cost and power requirements of a few large LW/MW
transmitters for broadcast radio, i.e. simple envelope detectors only are
required.