Gender

Development
Empowerment
&
Public Policy:
Bangladesh
Perspectives

Professor Md. Reazul Haque

PhD in Womens Studies, Flinders University
(Australia)
MA in Development Studies (ISS, the Netherlands)
MSS and MPhil in Public Administration (DU,
Bangladesh)
reaz.devstud@gmail.com

Methodology

Primary Data and Sample

Personnel of NGOs, Civil Servants, Students,
and Teachers of Dhaka University on the basis
of their accessibility.

Secondary Data
Newspaper reports, articles on the subject and
reports and papers of Government and Non
Government Organizations

Defining Gender

Biological
determinism
or
biological
essentialism
A narrow focus on biological difference
Considers gender relations as immutable
and fixed
Tends to reinforce rather than challenge
gender inequality

Defining Gender
2. Social construction of gender
Four dimensions of gender
- A property of individuals: gender identity as
affiliated with social roles, structured by
practices of culture, but also defined by the
subject through his/ her action
- A property of institutions: gender regime or a
set of norms and arrangements regulating
relations state structures and organizations
civil society
(family, school, trade unions, church)

Defining Gender

A property of social structure: an

enduring pattern of social relations that
conditions
the
possibility
and
consequences womens and mens
action
A property of value systems: (religions,
philosophies: for example male and
female characteristics are valued and
devalued differently)

Defining Gender
2. Social construction of gender
- Is ascending in influence
- Opens opportunities for new forms of
analysis of gender relations, including:
i] micro level of social interaction
ii] behavior of social institutions
iii] macro processes of structural
formation

Gender: What, How and Where?

Here I will apply Scotts definition of gender as

the social organization of sexual difference in
relation to gender mainstreaming as operating 1)
On a symbolic level: where images of masculinity
and femininity within organizational culture
impart meaning to phenomena which appear to
be gender-neutral. 2) At the level of individual
and collective identity of the institution, of specific
programs, lectures, staffs: where meanings of
sexual difference affect the self-image of wo/men
and the normative concepts in interpreting the
meanings of it; and 3) At the of social structures
the
availability of resources, accessibility of
social institutions and positions of power marked
by gender norms and gender symbols (Scott
1999: 2; Sevenhuijsen 1998:81).

Meaning of Gender
Sex refers to biological differences between
Gender refers to the socially determined personal and
psychological characteristics associated with being
(what's about 3rd Gender?) namely masculinity and
femininity. Notion of masculinity and femininity historically,
socially and culturally constructed.

Gender as analytical framework helps us to denaturalize

(look beyond the nature) men and women, masculinity
and femininity; to see them as socially produced not given
by birth, thus different through time and place. It helps us
to analyze relations of power of dominance and
marginalization, hegemony and subjugation, hierarchy
oppression as productive of gender identities, ideologies
and practices. It helps us to look at knowledge and
experiences of being a women or men as social practice,
linked to power.

Development

Edward W. Weidner Development is

a state of mind, a tendency a direction
rather than a fixed goal, it is a rate of
change in a particular direction
(Hossain 1994:4).
Some administrators think that, there
is no need of participation in
development
process
because
development is a technical issue and
s are not expert on that (Interview
2008).

Empowerment

The empowerment of people particularly women is a

sure way to link growth and human development. In fact,
empowerment should accompany all aspects of life. If
people can exercise their choices in the political,
social and economic spheres, there is a good
prospect that growth will be strong, democratic,
participatory and durable.

Empowerment - Empowerment means that people are in a

position to exercise choices of their own free will. It implies
a political democracy in which people can influence
decisions about their lives. It requires economic
liberalization so that people are free from excessive
economic
controls
and
regulations.
It
means
decentralization of power so that real governance is
brought to the doorstep of every person. It means that all
members in civil society, particularly non-governmental
organizations,
participate
fully
in
making
and
implementation decisions.

Public Policy

Public Policy is a set of principles adopted by Government in order to

fulfill defined agenda by resolving certain problems. It is a macro-level
premise on which certain projects and programs are taken to address
meso or micro level problems.
National Agriculture Policy 1999
National Industry Policy 2005
Textile Policy 1995
National Fisheries Policy 1992
National Water Policy 1999
Environmental Policy 1992
National Cooperative Policy 2001
National Health Policy 2008
National ICT Policy 2008
Costal Development Policy 2005
Export Policy 2006-2008
National Rural Development Policy 2001
National Social Welfare Policy 2005
Safety net/ Relief Distribution Policy 2007

Observations

Most policies are merely ambitious wish list

Ministries do not have any specific action plan to implement
and monitor the proposed polices as far as gender aspects
are concerned
In Education Policy the curriculum is not gender sensitive
and often reflects traditional roles of men and women.
Teachers training curricula also do not take into account
womens multiple responsibilities
Tokenism and Lip service

Policy Framework on Gender and Development in Bangladesh

The Constitution of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh has
mentioned equality among male and female at all sphere of life.
Government of Bangladesh has taken various initiatives to ensure
female development and to eradicate gender difference. Policies for
female have been formulated from countrys highest document
Constitution to lower administrative unit (UP).
Fundamental Principles of State Policy Related to Gender

Article 9: Promotion of Local Govt Institutions

Article 10: Participation of Women in National Life
Article 11: Democracy and Human Rights
Article 14: Emancipation of Peasants and Workers
Article 15: Provisions of Basic Necessities
Article 17: Free and Compulsory Education
Article 18: Public Health and Morality [18(2) about prostitution]
Article 19: Equality of Opportunity
Article 20: Work as a Right and Duty
Part III: Fundamental Rights Particularly Relevant for Men and Womens Rights
Article 27: Equality before Law

Policy Framework on Gender and Development in Bangladesh

The 1972 Constitution of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh

has recognized and guaranteed equal rights to women and article
28(1) states the state shall not discriminate against any
citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place
of birth and

article 28(2) women shall have equal rights with men in all
sphere of the state and public life (Bangladesh Constitution
1998).
Article 29: Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment
Article 31: Right to Protection of Law
Article 32: Protection of Rights to Life and Personal Liberty
Article 34: Prohibition of Force Labour
Article 35: Protection in Respect of Trial and Punishment
Article 36: Freedom of Movement
Article 37: Freedom of Assembly
Article 38: Freedom of Association
Article 39: Freedom of thought and Conscience and of Speech
Article 42: Rights to Property
Article 65: Establishment of Parliament

International Commitment

Conventional the Elimination of All Forms of

Discrimination Against Women (CEDEW)
Regional Mechanisms for Gender and Development
The SAARC Dhaka Declaration -2005
National Action Plan for Womens Advancement:
Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action
MDGs

Governments Commitment to Womens Development in Its

Long-Term Plans

First Five Year Plan (1973-78)

First Two Year Plan (1978-80)
Second Five Year Plan (1980-85) .0.19% Gender
Allocation..Public Sector
Third Five Year Plan (1985-90)..0.13%
Fourth Five Year Plan (1990-95) ..0.14%
Second Two Year Plan (1995-97)
Fifth Five Year Plan (1998-2003)..0.18%
PRSP
Sixth Five Year Plan (2012-)

Institutional Framework for the Advancement of Women

Department of Womens Affair

Jatiya Mohila Sahngstha (JMS)
Ministry of Women and Children Affairs (Bangladesh
was one of the first countries in the world to have a
separate ministry of women)
Lack of Human Resource
Budgetary Constraint (1% of total national
budgetary allocation)
Lack of Sector Specific Experts
Weak Institutional Structure

Theoretical Tool
Nancy Fraser (1995)
- Redistribution
- Recognition
Three model
First model of gender equality is based on sameness of and
. In this model policies often reflected in equal opportunities
for both and especially in fields which are dominated
(DU exam).

Second model is based on difference which would include

affirmative action programs to value s contributions despite
differences between the sexes (Free Education for Girls).
Third model is transformation. Transformation looks at both
sameness and difference but at the same time looks at
redefining gender relations through the setting of new
standards for (Walby 2003: 6-7).

Gender Related Development Issues and Problems in

Bangladesh

Women in the Legislature

As of 2002, only 11 countries could

achieve the benchmark determined by
the 1995 Beijing Platform of Action
demanding 30 percent of women
representation in the parliament by
adopting quotas (Ahmed 2005:521).

Bangladesh has never had a

President
or
in
other
foremost/important positions such as No
member was appointed as a Speaker
or Deputy Speaker. No was
appointed as a committee chairperson
in
the
thirty-five
Standing
Committees
of
the
national
Parliament during 2001-2005. Thus
leaders in Bangladesh have had very
limited access to the highest decision
making bodies

- participation in politics was widely

discouraged and denied by the major
political parties particularly religious
based political parties such as Jamaate- Islam does not believe in gender
equality and viewed s participation
as anti Islamic (Ahmed 2005: 525-526)

Nature and Characteristics

of Political Parties
- weak and non influential
decision making positions in
the
central
executive
committees
of
different
political parties.
- major political parties have a
preference to nominate those
people who have huge black
money
as
well
as
musclemen.
- political parties want to be
sure about the candidates
ability of winning in the
election and that is why their
presence remain poor in the
party politics (For example:
Shamim/ Nasim Osman,
Pintu, Joynal Hajari, Case of
Ngonj
City
Corporation
Election).

Local Government Structure and Female

Participation

-In 1994, for the first time, 19 ward commissioners

were elected to the reserved seats of the Dhaka City
Corporation .
-1997 Union Parishad direct elections for 12,723 word
member seats reserved for (Ahmed 2005:533535).
-opportunity to play an effective role and subordinate
position
-subjected to
counterparts

sexual

harassment

by

their

-birth certificate and member of law and order

maintain committee.

Bureaucratic Structure & Gender Politics in

Bureaucracy
-

redistribution of economic resources

closed doors of bureaucracy

Gender workshops with men in Bangladesh

What is there to learn on s issues? (Bhasin
1997: 56).

- candidates they have to be married and

need to submit their marriage certificate for
Health Assistant post (Interview 2008).

Control of Executive Branch& Participation in Public

Policy Making and Civil Servants

- Feminist policy formation

- Feminist movement and policy work
- State feminization
- The gender and welfare state (Mazur 2002:13-15).
-

A field survey (40 respondents) had been done and was asked
to civil servants about their role in preparation of public
policy and 55% replied that they were not involved with the
preparation of public policy.

55 % respondents replied that, they were not involved in

making long term development plan .

30 respondents replied that they did not contribute in

maintaining liaison with the donor and agreement between
GOB and Donor
( Haque Unpublished MPhil Thesis, 2004)

Lack of Human Rights

- Neo-liberal economists ignored role of unpaid care work done by
.
(Bangladeshi work 15-20 hrs a day which is unpaid =10000tk
per month, 23rd July 2008 Janakantha.)

- Symbolic violence (unwanted phone calls, comments from

passer by (Interview 2008).
- Violence against (September 2001- July 2002) Total 4304
cases (Raped 885, Gang raped 289 ,Post rape murder103, Acid
victim 237,Murder for dowry139,Fotowa victim 29 etc). According
to the Bangladesh Institute of Human Rights (BIHR), during the
first six month of the year 2009, 1479 women were raped in
Bangladesh.
- Family Violence ( Bangladesh - 2nd position ) (15th July 2008
Janakantha)
- The capabilities approach developed by M. Nussbaum
lack of human rights, violence and threat to violence (physical,
psychological) limits capabilities and has negative effect on
holistic development.

Religious Fundamentalism (Fotwa)

Control of womens behaviour is high on the

fundamentalist agenda (Winter 2001).

Attacks on NGOs- including the s credit programme

of Grameen Bank, the educational programmes of
BRAC as well as community based family planning
activities
(Freeman 1998:64).

Fatwa (union namely Kalikpur located in the

Madaripur district , are still prohibited from going to
the pooling centres because of local fatwas declaring
that it is not appropriate for to vote (Ahmed
2005:529).

Hillah marriage (oral divorce).

Land Rights System for in Bangladesh

Unequal land rights of women

Good sisterhood(Agarwal 1996:280).

Vulnerability and asset ownership (Moser

1998:3).

Gender bias Government Budget

Fuel price purchase of commercial fuel use of

animal dung and wood invisible price interms of
workload .

Ministry of Womens Affairs was excluded from

budget preparation and recently included!

Ministers of Womens affairs have a crucial role in

increasing the understanding of why and how
budget can be made gender responsive (Elson
1998:42).

Micro Credit, A Tool of Empowerment but Who

Controls the Loan?

control over loans

-The intense pressure of timely loan

repayment on
-

as a resource for use

Increased labor burden.

Judiciary, Gender Justice and Governance

Rape case

Divorce (Muslim law, a husband can put into effect divorce right on his
wife at anytime without any reason. In this case, men have unilateral
supremacy. If husband has given divorce right in the marriage certificate
then she can go to court and later she needs to send application to world
commissioner. After 90 days, it will be effective. Muslim woman has
divorce right but she has to overcome several steps. In Hindu law there
is no space for divorce but has separation rule and due to no divorce
right female cannot remarriage but male can exercise polygamy. In
Muslim marriage, evidence of two women is equivalent to one man.
Another interesting thing is Muslim woman cannot marry with a Hindu
man unless he does not change his religion (Authors Interview 2008).)

Property (In case of asset right, Muslim daughter will get 1/3 and
son will get 2/3 of their father/mother assets. Wife will get 1/8 of
her death husbands property and husband will get of his death
property. If a couple has no son but has daughter, in this case
daughter will not get full property of her parents. In Hindu law, girl
has no rights on her fathers property.

Guardianship (In Muslim law, there is no scope of guardianship

for women. Even, father is alive, but he is not accomplishing any
responsibilities, will get invisible guardianship!! Mother can get
custody for certain period only.

According to article 70 and 71 of Criminal Procedure Code, if court

summons against a person and in absence of that person, only
adult men of that family will be able to take it. If there is no adult
men then authority will hang that summons at the gate of that
house but no woman of that family is entitle to receive that paper
(Authors Interview 2008).

low participation in judiciary process

( serves interests)

Media and Gender

Advertisement Raduni spices, where
mother is telling her son to bring a
good cook [cum wife] for him. That
means she is shaping role of wife who
will cook for her husband and creating
negative impact on society (Interview
2008).
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Gender Reforms in Development

Women in Development (WID)

Women and Development (WAD)
Gender and Development (GAD)
Gender and Global Governance
(GGG)

Women in Development (WID)

1970 Ester Boserup (Danish), Womens Role in Economic

Development: Pointed out discrimination of woman in national
economies by analyzing women in farming system showed
how women do not receive any development (technical,
educational..) aid and are left out.
Argument: Women need to be taken into account and have
access to development (women need development), this will
benefit national economics! Economic argument attracted
attention of mainstream development experts/agencies
already biased in perceiving development through
(exclusively economic lens)
She defined women not as recipients of welfare, but as
productive, efficient, economic agents
Womens exclusion from public sphere she defined as a
result of (male and female) prejudice and misunderstanding
of womens capacities, that can be re-addressed by education
and information

Measures/remedies :
Bringing benefits of modernization to women
Bringing women into development = bringing women into
national economics (i.e. assumption is that women are
outside (left out) of development (left within household) and
need to integrate into industrial, agricultural etc labour
To help integration anti-discriminatory policies introduced to
deal with prejudice of (male) planners of development (be it
national, or international), different measures against
barriers and obstacles for integration and equal
opportunities; many anti-discriminatory laws in employment,
education, political participation, new research on womens
economic contributions, sex disaggregated statistics to show
womens economic input
WID become influential for the mainstream development
practice adopted by UNDP and WB because of its
economic appeal, because of its modernist, liberal bias,
and because of Western feminists hegemonic position.
From 1970-80 poverty of women increased: UN talks of
feminization of poverty. Thus, the WID approach practiced by
international and national agencies was obviously failing.

Women & Development (WAD)

Arguments:
Women are already in development, but are not recognized,
their (household) work is rendered invisible and insignificant;
instead of bringing women out into the market, their household
work needs to be better valued.
Womens integration into national economy does not necessarily
lead to participation of fair distribution of benefits
Measures/ remedies:
Concerned with fairness more than GDP and efficiency
Separatism (womens only projects), informal sector (as opposed
to formal national etc.)
Building upon existing womens skill (cooking, sewing,
gardening) starting income generating projects
Making womens work visible (lots of research about womens
work in different domains)

Gender and Development (GAD)

Is informed by gender theory in anthropology
and sociology
Is concerned with culturally specific forms of
gender inequality and social division.
Shares with WAD the view on gender
relations as power relations, on intersection
between gender and other forms of social
hierarchy.
Resists privileging the perspective of the
south

Gender and Development (GAD)

Develops sophisticated analysis of unequal
burden through the gender division of
labour in three forms:
i] segregated labour market within a sector
and across sectors
ii] the household
iii] voluntary community services
Advocates equality as equal opportunity in
the present plus equity as fairness or
compensation for an unleveled field
produced by history, equity leads to
equality.

Gender and Global Governance (GGG)

Considering poverty with gender inequality
and violation of s social rights.
Engaging with development planning from
the inside to challenge gender bias through
Feminist Development Economics (FDE).
Addressing the omission of the sphere of
care/nature in macro-economic planning
world wide as:
-a major form of global gender inequality
-an outcome of -centered policy and
theoretical discourses that naturalize care
and nature as female duty

Gender and Global Governance (GGG)

Considering this omission as a key barrier to
fairness in resource allocation causing an
intensification of s work in the development
process and gender differentiated impacts of
structural adjustment policy.
Working with emerging global gender equality
regimes (CEDAW, Gender mainstreaming).
Stressing significance of gender politics in the
policy process and need to resolved local/
global tension.

Progress: Gender Development in

Bangladesh

Major achievements at a glance 2001-2005

Bangladesh has ratified the CEDAW Convention except Articles

(2) and 16.1(c).

Provide mothers name as a guardian besides the fathers

name in all documents.

Pension Rule has been revised to make it -friendly

Recruitment of the women in Police Force, Army, Air Force

and Navy.

Appointment of two women judges in the High Court Division of

Supreme Court.

Made the provision of 6 months maternity leave instead of 3 months.

BRAC the largest NGO in the world with the help of noble laureate
Amartya Sen has established Protichi Trust (Bangladesh), provides
scholarship and encouraging those women who want take journalism
as a profession. They have completed first batch training and
participants have already been employed in the newspaper and
electronic media (Interview 2008).

The Daily News Paper Prothom Alo is trying to raise fund for acid
victims and about its atrocity in the society.

Setting up of special sensitive cases and speedy disposal of acid

throwing cases.

Speedy Trial Tribunal Act 2002 has been in operation which also tries
the sensational cases of violence against with highest priority.

Formulation of National Plan of Action against the Sexual Abuse and

exploitation of Children including Trafficking (SEACT) in the year 2002
with view to protect children from all sorts of sexual exploitation.

Increasing the womens seats in the national parliament to

45 from the immediate previous number of 30.

ASK is working in eleven districts through training,

gender justice, popular theatre and rape, fatwas, hilla
marriage, marriage without registration, early marriage
have been reduced and awareness among and ,
organizational development, capacity building,
participation in the
salish, have been increased
(Interview 2008).

- Democracy Watch has established gender and

governance training to make young people (both and
) more gender sensitive (Interview 2008).

Reform and Changes Needed

Policy reform and compliance to international commitment (article 2 and

16(1) (c) of the CEDEW
Institutional Changes (Ministry of Women and Children Affairs)
Gender-Disaggregated data
Developing specific gender sensitive indicators
Induction of Gender Audit (public policy impact differently on men and
women)
Institutional linkage and coordination
Innovations and shifts in fiscal policy focus
Fiscal measures for increasing womens access to higher education,
technical education and skill training
Fiscal measures for the development of womens health
Fiscal measures for establishing womens control over assets and
finance
Revenue measures for realizing the creativity and potential of women
Development Planning Approaches
Introduction of sectoral policy statement
Development of planning guideline
Revision of DPP situation analysis for all development project

Reform and Changes Needed

Reform in electoral process

Compiling the laws related to women into one law book
Strengthening the family courts
Strengthening the family courts
Ensuring proper law enforcement
Reform in the police force and investigating agencies
Raising social awareness
Changing the existing methods of investigating criminal cases
Increasing support services for women
Setting targets and action plan ( i.e. increase womens share
up to 33% in the entire civil service)

Steps to development through gender mainstreaming ensured by

realistic public policies and their implementation

DEVELOPMENT
Equal empowerment
Gender mainstreaming

Participation in
Labour Force
Recognition
Gender Equality

Social Justice

Elimination of
discrimination
Elimination of violence
against

Social Transformation

Consciousness

Self-consciousness

Redistribution
Media
Education

Political parties
NGOs
Government
Other institutions
Family supports

Conclusion

social justice redistribution recognition Social

transformation gender equity equal empowerment
elimination of gender discriminationviolence against
increased participation gender mainstreaming
development
Need more inclusive strategies for change, and to put the in
to humankind in gender and development.