CHAPTER 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF
PNEUMATICS

Definitions
Pneumatics
Greek pneuma = breath (bernafas)
The term pneumatics describes the use of compressed air
in drive and control engineering.
The introduction of pneumatics into mechanization and
automation began in the middle of the 20th century.
An example of the early use of compressed air :
Reconstruction of the water organ of Ktesibios (Arens
1960).

Figure 1.1 - Water organ of Ktesibios

Application Areas
Areas of use
Nowadays, compressed air can be found in almost all fields
of engineering, e.g.:
-

Industry
Rail transport
Motor vehicles
Shipping
Construction

Trade
Air transport
Mining
Medicine
Defense

Pneumatics can also be used as

a) Generation of linear motion
-

Clamping tools
Feed units
Lifting and lowering
Door control
Industrial robots
Welding clamps
Ejectors
Pneumatic presses

b) Generation of rotary motion

-

Screw drivers
Grinder
Thread cutters
Drills
Shears
Nibblers

Physics of Gases

Gases are composed of molecules which move in

relation to each other.
Gases fill the complete volume available to them and
exert a pressure due to the motion of the molecules.
The molecular motion is generated by heat.

Physical Principles in
Pneumatics
Transmission of force by fluids

When a solid material is struck/hit, the main force of

the blow is transmitted straight through the bar
opposite end.

Confined liquid but also equally and undiminished in

every other direction, sideways, downwards, and
upwards.
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) also discovered that pressure
is equal to force per unit area, or the force divided by
the area on which it acts.
Three important principles: Force, Pressure and Area.

Figure 1.2
Transmission of force
through a solid material
and through a static
fluid.

Figure 1.3

Pressure applied to a static

and confined fluid is
transmitted undiminished in
all directions and acts with
equal force on equal areas
and at right angles to them.

Force

Forces cannot be seen but their effects can be.

A force applied to an object has the effect of causing:
i.
a movement to begin or to change.
ii. the shape of an object to change.
In pneumatic applications force is produced by air
pressure acting onto a surface (usually a piston, a valve
or a diaphragm).

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Pressure

Pressure is defined as force per unit area as (figure 1.4

and 1.5).
If we want to find out the pressure, we have to measure
or determine two quantities:
i.
the size of the force required.
ii. The area over which the pressure is acting.

Area

Area or surface on which the pressure can act that will

produce the force required for the job.
This area is called effective area.
Unit pressure , Pa (N/m2), PSI (lb/in2)

Pressure

Force

Area

Area

Force

Force
Pressure

Pressure X Area

The effective area A on which pneumatic pressure can

act to produce the required pneumatic force is either
the:
i.
ii.
iii.

Projection of the ball-seat area (check valve).

Projection of the pressure exposed piston area.
Calculated effective piston area (spool valve).

Figure 1.6 Effective Areas

Circular area
In pneumatic power transmission calculations the area of
the circle is often used.
So the circle calculation formula :

Area

Area

pX

D X 0.7854

Area

pX

D
4

Mass Compared to Force

Newton found by experiments that on the surface of the

earth acceleration (g) due to gravity is approximately
9.81 m/s2.
Newtons Law states :
Force = Mass (kg) X Acceleration (m/s2)
or
F = m X g

Exercise 1 :
Given mass = 660kg,
calculated force.
Additional weight
140kg, calculated
force.
Piston area = 0.01m2,
calculated pressure.

Figure 1.7

Boyles Law

When temperature of an enclosed sample of gas was kept

constant and the pressure doubled by means of a piston,
the volume was reduced to half the previous volume.
When the piston retracted the volume increased again and
the pressure decreased.

V1 X P1
V1
V2

=
=

V2 X P2
P1
P2

Figure 1.8
Temperature
maintained,
volume
decreased.

Charles' Law

At constant pressure the volume of a gas varies in direct

proportion to a change in temperature.
To solve problems of this nature absolute values of
temperature and pressure must be used.
Absolute zero on the Kelvin temperature scale is equivalent
to -273 degrees Centigrade.

V1

= T1

V2

T2

1000C

V2

V1T2
T1

373 Kelvin

Gay-Lussacs Law

He observed that if a volume of a gas is kept constant, the

pressure exerted by the confined gas is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature of the gas.

P1
P2

T1
T2

P2

P1T2
T1

Conclusion

The combination of the three gas laws of Boyle, Charles, and

Gay-Lussac results in the general gas law reads:

p1V1
T1

p2V2
T2

or

pV
T

constant