GIS DATABASES

an overview

Contents
the basics of data storage
overview of databases
the database approach
types of databases
databases in GIS

design considerations
development of an ARC/INFO database

Conceptual, logical and physical ...

Conceptual

Logical

Physical
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A storage hierarchy ...

files/tables
records
fields(types )

databases
information systems
decision support systems (DSS)

increasing
complexit
y

approaches to storage
application/file based
databases
4

Application based approach

Tax/Rates
Assessment

Assessment Data

Permits

Permit Data

Sewer
Maintenance

Sewer Data

Applications using data stored as Application Specific data

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Tax/Rates
Assessment

Permits

Sewer
Maintenance

Database Management System

Database approach
Assessment Data

Permit Data

Sewer Data

Database approach and use of shared data implications for GIS

Database a definition
A collection of interrelated data stored
together with controlled redundancy to
serve one or more applications in an optimal
fashion.
A common and controlled approach is used
in adding new data and modifying and
retrieving existing data within the data base
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Databases objectives/advantages
centralised data storage and management
global view of data data dictionary

standardisation of all aspects of data management

reduced duplication
multiple access / retrieval flexibility
integrity constraints validation enforced
...

data base management system (DBMS)

Database/s data dictionary

the most critical (?) element of a database

data about data metadata
essential for system development
uses include

design - entities and data relationships

data capture - entry/validation
operations - program documentation
maintenance (impact assessment of proposed
changes , est. of effort, cost )
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Data dictionary
types of information (general)

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GIS Metadata

DBMS key modules

a data description/definition module
defines/creates/restructures
enforces rules

a query module
retrieval for queries, ad-hoc queries, simple reports

a report writing program

a high level language interface
...
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Database stages of development

information systems plan for organisation
system specification user needs analysis
conceptual design data modelling
hardware and software independent

physical design database design

database implementation
monitoring/audit

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Database stages of development

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Organisational strategy and IT

Land Information System (LIS) (i)
Problems/issues:
rationalisation of land related information in
government agencies
the removal/reduction of duplication
introduction of economies in data capture,
maintenance and storage
better (and wider) access to data

solutions .

..
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Organisational strategy and IT

Land Information System (LIS) (ii)
Solutions:
better data distribution mechanism (data format and
location transparent to user)
knowledge of data distribution built into the data
dictionary
reduction of data duplication
uniform query language (SQL)
coding and data interchange standardisation (
SDTS)

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Database types a history

Evolution of Database
technology

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Database types - hierarchical (i)

lends itself to GIS use as data are often
hierarchical in structure e.g. municipality x
province x country
records divided into logically related fields
connected in a tree-like arrangement
master field in each group of records
pointers updates require pointers to be
modified
fast preset queries ad hoc queries difficult or
impossible
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Database types
- hierarchical (ii)
COUNTRY (USA)

States

Counties

Boundaries

Nodes
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Hierarchical Structure for a

Cadastral database

Hierarchical Structure for a

Cadastral database

Database types - network (i)

similar to hierarchical but have multiple
connections between files to accommodate
many to many (M:M) relationships
access to a particular file without searching the
entire hierarchy above that file
linked records quick preset searches large
overhead in pointer management
modification after creation difficult
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Database types - network (ii)

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Database types - network (ii)

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Database types - relational (i)

model developed from mathematics
records and fields in a 2-dimensional table
no pointers etc any field can be used to link
one table to another
normalisation redundancy/stable structure
ad hoc queries SQL modifications easy
not very efficient for GIS SQL3

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Database types - relational (i)

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Database types - relational (iii)

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Hierarchical structure
Network structure

Relational structure
(part)

Centralised vs distributed
a database does not necessarily mean a
centralised arrangement i.e. all data in one
physical place

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GIS and distributed databases

...
trend towards open systems ...
special hardware and software can be used widely
specific applications optimised
system/network communications is easier

modular implementation from an overall design

incremental change
unlimited capacity (nodes) lower risks

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Approaches to GIS system design

develop a proprietary system
develop a hybrid system: proprietary graphics +
commercial DBMS for attribute data (e.g.
ARC/INFO)
use commercial DBMS and develop spatial
functions and graphics display used in
geographic analysis (e.g. siroDBMS, System9)
develop a spatial DBMS from scratch
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Approaches to GIS system design

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(1) Separate Spatial and attribute data

Software
linkages

(2) Integrated Spatia

and attribute data

GIS databases some problems (i)

centralised risk
centralisation demands better quality control other higher
potential for disaster

cost
large DBMSs are expensive to design, implement and operate
piecemeal design is difficult

complexity
need to keep track of complex hardware and software
need to keep track of graphical as well as attribute data and the
links

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GIS databases some problems (ii)

Cascading effects of change in a GIS database (ESRI 1989)

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GIS Design

GIS database design guide

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Objectives of design
a good design results in a database which:
contains necessary data but no redundant data
organises data so that different users access the same
data
accommodates different views of the data
distinguishes applications which maintain data from
those that use it
appropriately represents, codes and organises
geographic features

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Design methodology (for ARC/INFO)

conceptual model
model the users view
define entities and their relationships

logical model
identify representation of entities
match to ARC/INFO data model
organise into geographic data sets

physical model

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Design methodology (for ARC/INFO)

1. Model the users view

2. Define entities and their relationships
3. Identify representation of entities
4. Match to ARC/INFO data model
5. Organise into geographic data sets

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1. Model the users view

create a model of work performed by users for
which location is a factor
identify organisational functions
identify the data which supports the functions

organise data into sets of geographic features

data function matrix
high level classification of data
interdependence of data and function
difference between users and creators of data

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Land development management function

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Data function matrix an example

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2. Define entities and their relationships

entities: distinguishable objects which have a
common set of properties
identify and describe entities
identify and describe the relationship among these
entities
document the process
diagrams
data dictionary

Normalise the data

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Entity/relationship definition

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Diagramming entities

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Normalisation
First Normal Form (1NF)
Second Normal Form (2NF)
Third Normal Form (3NF)

ASR - Assessor

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Underlying entities...

Parcel

Zoning Owner Ownership

3. Identify representation of entities

determine the most effective spatial
representation for geographic features
consider whether:
a feature might be represented on a map
the shape of a feature might be significant in
performing geographic analysis
the feature will have different representations and
different map scales
textual attributes of the feature will be displayed on
map products
...
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4. Match to ARC/INFO data model

determine the appropriate ARC/INFO
representation for entities
points, lines, polygons

ensure complex feature classes are supported

route comprised of sections which in turn are based
on arcs
a region is composed of polygons
event is a point or a line which occurs along a route

others (e.g. GRID, TIN)

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Matching to ARC/INFO data model

Entity Spatial ARC/
type
INFO

Related Coverage Attribu Anno.

to
te files LUT

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5. Organise into geographic data sets

to identify and name the geographic data sets
that will contain the various entities:
define the contents of geographic data sets
(coverages, grids etc)
name workspaces, geographic data sets, entities and
attributes
complete entity definitions
add cartographic text and lookup tables

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5(i) Define the content of geographic data sets

Data sets supported : coverage, grid, tin, image
and drawing
coverages several entities can be grouped into a
single coverage
DBMS : stored in a separate database
management system

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5 (ii) Geographic datasets, entities and attributes

coverage definitions
high level summary of the data physically stored in
the database
required for defining the coverage structure

file naming conventions in ARC/INFO

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5 (iii) Complete entity definitions

background information: coverage name, data
source, agency, number of records etc.
attribute definition
attribute name, type, field width
validation rules/ permitted values

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5 (iv) Cartographic text & code tables

annotation (text, placing rules etc)
look up tables
pre defined set of values
description/ labels
means of creating displays based on attribute values

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Robinson (Ch 14): Scale and GIS databases

(past) maps scale greatly influenced map
content and data resolution
GIS data are scaleless scale is still a
critical factor with digital databases - because
of the ways in which we create digital databases
scale and resolution (Tab 14.1)

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Robinson (Ch 14): Scale and resolution issues

symbolisation and display problems
handling databases of different scales
join problems (e.g. urban rural)
merge problems (different themes)
scale levels
in general
large scale data (AM/FM etc.)

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Robinson (Ch 15): Managing large GIS

Data organisation
partitioning
spatial indexes
metadata

data compression
run length encoding (RLE)
quadtree encoding
others ...

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