Thermodynamics

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
( Bodies in contact)
B

A
Q

Two bodies are in thermal contact if energy is

exchanged
If TA > TB, energy transfer from A to B
Body that looses energy, temperature decrease
Body that gain energy, temperature increase
When TA = TB , No energy exchange
Condition called thermal equilibrium.

Thermal Equilibrium

Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics
If objects A and B are separately in
thermal equilibrium with a third object C,
then objects A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics
Temperature can be thought as a property
that determines whether an object is in
thermal equilibrium with other objects
Two objects in thermal equilibrium with
each other at at the same temperature

Temperature, T
Measurement of degree of hotness

The constant-volume Gas Thermometer and

absolute temperature scale

The constant-volume Gas Thermometer and

absolute temperature scale

The constant-volume Gas Thermometer and

absolute temperature scale

Temperature, T
Measurement of degree of hotness
Units: Kelvin (K), Celcius (C), Fahrenheit
(F)
TK = TC + 273.15
Absolute zero is -273.15 oC or 0 K
Minimum total energy

Temperature, T
Triple point temperature of water occurs
at 273.16 K or 0.01 oC with water-vapour
pressure of 610 Pa
This is the combination of temperature
and pressure at which solid water (ice),
liquid water, and water vapour can coexist.

Temperature, T
TC = TK = (5/9)TF
TF = (9/5)TC + 32 oF
The size of a degree celcius is the same
as the size of a kelvin.
The two scales ( celcius and kelvin) differ
only in the choice of the zero point, i.e
0.00 oC corresponds to 273.15 K

Absolute temperatures
at which various
physical processes
occur. Note that the
scale is logarithmic.

Fig.19.6,p.585

EXPANSION

Most bodies expand with heat

In buildings, thermal expansion joints put in building to
compensate for the change
When temperature increases, atoms vibrate with bigger
amplitude
Hence, distance between atoms increases
Solid substance expand linearly if expansion small
If the length of a rod is l0 at T0, when temperature is increase to
T0+ T then the length becomes l0 + l
T0 ,l0

EXPANSION

If l is the linear expansion(length/width/height), l0 is the initial

length, T is final temperature and T0 is the initial temperature,
then
l l l T T ;

or l l 0 T
l change in length
T change in temperatur e
coefficient of linear expansion

Generally the value of

is positive for all materials, that is the
length, width or height will increases temperature. But certain
substance such as calcite expand in one dimension but
contracts in the other dimension

The long, vertical joint is filled with a soft material that allows
the wall to expand and contract as the temperature of the
bricks changes
Fig.19.7,p.587

http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/de/physics20/heat/exp
an_app_expjoints.htm

academic.greensboroday.org

newenergynews.blogspot.com

EXPANSION

Values of coefficient of linear expansion

SUBSTANCE

( 0 C ) 1

Aluminum

24 x 10-6

Copper

17 x 10-6

Glass

9 x 10-6

Steel

11 x 10-6

Concrete

12 x 10-6

Alcohol

1.12 x 10-4

Mercury

1.82 x 10-4

air

3.67 x 10-3

Thermal expansion
of a homogeneous
metal washer. As
the washer is
heated, all
dimensions
increase. (The
expansion is
exaggerated in this
figure.)

Fig.19.8,p.587

EXPANSION

Since linear expansion happens, then the area and volume will also
expand
A A0 T ;

A - change in area
A0 - initial area
V V0 T

V - change in volume
V0 - initial volume
and since 2 and 3
hence A 2 A0 T
and

V 3 V0 T

is the coefficient of area expansion

is the coefficient of volume expansion

EXPANSION

Most plastic and steel have high coefficient of expansion

Wood expand a lot more across the grain then along or parallel
to the grain. Hence wooden floor has to be arranged such that
pressure on nails are reduced
Blocking the expansion of concrete or bricks can cause cracking
in walls or beams
In designing buildings, the change in temperature between the
hottest day and the coldest day of the year has to be taken into
account
Change in temperature will cause damage to walls and roofs
because of stress strain produce when expansion is not
compensated

EXPANSION OF WATER

Above 4 oC, water expands when

heated
Hence, greatest density at 4 oC
But, from 4 oC to 0 oC water increase in
volume
Water expands when it freezes

EXPANSION OF WATER
V

T ( oC)

(In lakes) Cold water goes down because of greater

density (volume decrease) as temp. drops (before 4 oC)
When temp. below 4 oC, water near surface less dense
(volume increase) than warmer water at the bottom, hence
Downward flow ceases
Water at surface freezes, ice floats because less dense
Water at bottom remain at 4 oC until entire lake freezes

The variation in the density of water at atmospheric pressure with

temperature. The inset at the right shows that the maximum
density of water occurs at 4C.

Fig.19.11,p.591

HEAT, Q
Defined as the transfer of energy across
the boundary of a system due to
temperature difference
Units of heat: Joule, calorie

HEAT CAPACITY
Q T (T is the change in temperature )
Hence, Q = C T , C is the heat capacity
C = Q , heat/energy needed to raise the
T
temperature of sample by 1oC or 1 K

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Q T and
Q m ( m = mass of sample)
Hence, Q = cm T , c is the specific heat
capacity

Q
c=
, heat/energy needed to raise the
mT
temperature of a unit mass of the sample
by 1oC or 1 K

EXAMPLES OF SPECIFIC
HEAT CAPACITY
Caluminium = 900 J.kg-1K-1
Ccopper
= 387 J.kg-1K-1
Cwqter
= 4186 J.kg-1K-1 (at 15 oC)
If we have 1 kg of copper and and 1 kg of
water, then it takes more energy to raise the
temperature of water than copper.

LATENT HEAT
latent means hidden
Transfer of heat often results in change in
temperature
But sometimes temperature remain constant
even though heat is being transferred.
This happen during phase change, ie physical
characteristic of substance change from one
form to another

LATENT HEAT .cont.

Phase changes such as:
solid to liquid
( melting ) liquid to gas (boiling) and vice versa
Phase change involve change in internal energy but
no change in temperature
Energy used to break bonds
This energy called latent heat, QL
QL = mL, L is the latent heat or
L=
, the heat required to change the form of a
Q
unit mass of a substance
L

LATENT HEAT .cont.

Lf latent heat of fusion, the amount of heat
needed to change a unit mass of substance
from solid to liquid.
LV latent heat of vaporization, the amount of
heat required to change a unit mass of a
substance from liquid to gas.

LATENT HEAT .cont.

Example: ice to water to vapor
Q = mL, heat required to
change phase

T(0C)

(liquid + gas state)

100
Q = mL, heat required to
change phase
(solid + liquid state)
0
-10

Q = mcT, heat needed

to raise temperature
(liquid state)
t(s)

Q = mcT, heat needed

to raise temperature
(solid state)

Calorimetry
Qcold object = -Qhot object or
Qgain by object = -Qlost by object
Qcold object + Qhot object = 0 (if only two objects involved)
Qk = 0 (if more than two objects)

HEAT TRANSFER

Method of heat transfer: conduction, convection, radiation

Conduction:
Heat is transferred directly through a material
Two system in contact, one at a higher temperature
Atoms of body with high temperature more energetic
Hence energy transferred from high body temperature to
lower body temperature
Occurs best in solid, but also in liquid and gases
Factors effecting heat transfer:

Time, more heat transferred, more time taken

Temperature difference, greater difference more heat transferred
Cross sectional area of body in contact
Length of heat transfer

HEAT TRANSFER

Energy, Q is transferred, when there is a

temperature gradient, i.e Th>Tc

The rate of energy transfer, P = Q/t is

proportional to cross-sectional area of the
slab and the temperature difference and
inversely proportional to the thickness of
the slab:

Q
T
A
t
x

P has units of watts

Q is in joules

HEAT TRANSFER

Consider the energy, Q transfer through an

object , say an insulated rod of length L,
where the ends are in contact with energy
reservoirs and there is a temperature
gradient, i.e Th >Tc

When equilibrium is reached, the

temperatures are constant in time and in
this case, T = Th -Tc , and x = L, so:
T
T Tc
h
x
L

And hence the rate of energy transfer by

conduction through can be given as
P kA

( Th Tc )
L

Where k is called the thermal conductivity

HEAT TRANSFER

Metal is the best conductor, high k

Liquids and gases generally has low k, bad conductors, good
insulators

HEAT TRANSFER

Note:
The rate of energy (power) transfer by conduction is given as:
P kA

( Th Tc )
L

But the energy, Q that is transferred can be expressed as:

( T Tc )
Q
kA h
t
L
( T Tc )
Q kA h
t
L
P

HEAT TRANSFER

Convection process in which heat is carried from place to

place by the bulk movement of a fluid
When part of fluid warmed, volume of fluid expands, density
decreases
Warmer fluid pushed up, cooler and denser fluid replaces it
Cooler fluid then warmed up and pushed up, thus continuous
flow established convection current

HOT AIR

HEAT

AIR

COLD AIR

HEAT TRANSFER

Convection process

Causes smoke to rise

Hot air in building pushed up
Transfer of heat through pipes, floor, walls, roofs in building
Refrigerator
Warming of atmosphere, prevent convection, polluted air not
transferred up, hence causing haze, smog etc
Amount of heat transferred, Q given by

Q h(T1 T2 ) ;
h - boundary - layer heat - transfer
coefficient
- unit : Wm - 2 k 1

HEAT TRANSFER

Radiation the process in which energy is transferred by

means of electromagnetic waves
Energy from sun brought to earth by electromagnetic waves
Process does not require medium, can go through vacuum
All bodies continuously radiate energy, example human
body(detected using infrared detecting electronic cameras),
even an ice cube radiates energy
If temperature less than 1000 K, not much visible light emitted
If more than 1000 K - red glow seen, 1700 K white hot
When transfer of energy through radiation, absorption just as
important as emission
Surface of object plays a significant role

HEAT TRANSFER

Black surface absorbs about 97% of radiant energy

Silvery surface absorbs about 10% of radiant energy
Remaining energy reflected
Perfect blackbody absorbs all the electromagnetic waves
All objects emit and absorb e-waves simultaneously
When a body has same temperature as surroundings, then
amount of energy emitted equals amount absorb
If amount absorbed greater than amount emitted, temperature
of body increases
If amount emitted greater than amount absorbed, temperature
of body decreases

HEAT TRANSFER

A material that is good absorber, is also a good emitter, for

example black
A material that is poor absorber, is also a poor emitter, for
example polished silver
A perfect blackbody, being a perfect absorber, is also a perfect
emitter
Amount of radiant heat emitted for perfect blackbody given by

Q T 4 At ;
- Stefan - Boltzmann constant
- 5.67 x 10 - 8 J.(s.m 2 .K 4 ) 1
T - temperatur e in Kelvin
A - surface area
t - time

HEAT TRANSFER

Not all bodies are perfect emitters, hence amount of energy

emitted can be given as;

Q eT 4 At ;
e - factor called emissivity

For a perfect blackbody then e = 1

MATERIALS

Black paint

0.98

Human skin

0.95

Red brick

0.93-0.96

White paint

0.90

Wood

0.82-0.92

Silver

0.02

Gold

0.03

aluminum

0.07

HEAT TRANSFER

Discussion:
Insulation is important save energy and cost especially cold
climate
Cooling using air condition uses much energy, but to heat up
in cold climate uses even more
Difference between outside temperature and inside:
- hot climate 20 0C
- cold climate 50 oC
Moderate temperature using suitable materials. A good
insulator is one which can trap air example light fiber, wood
cork, wool, polystyrene etc
Reflective material such as bright metal foil put under roof/tiles

HEAT TRANSFER

Time for heat to be transmitted across walls can be

calculated;

Not insulated wall, steel structure fraction of a second

Wooden wall(25 mm)
- 20 min
Concrete wall(200 mm)
- 3 hours
Marble or limestone wall
- 3 days

The right choice of materials suitable for the climate is important

in cost maintenance of a building