Unit 1

Concept of Measurement

Syllabus
General concept Generalized measurement
system-Units

and

standards-measuring

instruments- sensitivity, readability, range of

accuracy, precision-static and dynamic response
repeatability- systematic and random errorscorrection, calibration, interchangeability

Definition
Metrology is the name given to the science of
pure measurement.
Engineering Metrology is restricted to
measurements of length & angle
Measurement is defined as the process of
numerical evaluation of a dimension or the
process of comparison with standard
measuring instruments

Why measure things?

Check quality?
Check tolerances?
Allow statistical process control (SPC)?

Need of Measurement

Establish standard
Interchange ability
Customer Satisfaction
Validate the design
Physical parameter into meaningful number
True dimension
Evaluate the Performance

Methods of Measurement

Direct method
Indirect method
Comparative method
Coincidence method
Contact method
Deflection method
Complementary method

Direct method
Measurements are directly obtained
Ex: Vernier Caliper, Scales

Indirect method
Obtained by measuring other quantities
Ex : Weight = Length x Breadth x Height x Density

Comparative Method
Its compared with other known value
Ex: Comparators

Coincidence method
Measurements coincide with certain lines and
signals
Fundamental method
Measuring a quantity directly in related with
the definition of that quantity
Contact method
Sensor/Measuring tip touch the surface area

Complementary method
The value of quantity to be measured is
combined with known value of the same
quantity
Ex:Volume determination by liquid displacement

Deflection method
The value to be measured is directly indicated
by a deflection of pointer
Ex: Pressure Measurement

GENERALIZED MEASURING SYSTEM

Common elements of system

Primary sensing element

Variable conversion element
Variable manipulation element
Data transmission element
Data processing element
Data presentation element

Primary sensing
element

Variable conversion
element

Variable
manipulation element
Temperature

Data transmission
element

Observer
Data presentation
element

Data processing
element

Units and standards

SI: fundamental Units

Physical Quantity

Unit Name

Symbol

length

meter

mass

kilogram

kg

time

second

electric current

ampere

temperature

Kelvin

amount of substance

mole

mol

luminous intensity

candela

cd

SI: Derived Units

Physical Quantity

Unit Name

Symbol

area

square meter

m2

volume

cubic meter

m3

speed

meter per
second

m/s

acceleration

meter per
second squared

m/s2

weight, force

newton

pressure

pascal

Pa

energy, work

joule

Supplementary units

Physical Quantity

Unit Name

Symbol

Plane angle

Radian

rad

Solid angle

Steradian

sr

Standards
International standards
Primary standards
Secondary standards

Working standards

International
International Organization of Legal Metrology, Paris
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at
Sevres, France

India

Measuring Instruments

Deflection and null type instruments

Analog and digital instruments
Active and passive instruments
Automatic and manually operated
instruments
Contacting and non contacting instruments
Absolute and secondary instruments
Intelligent instruments.

DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE

Physical effect generated by the measuring
quantity
Equivalent opposing effect to nullify the physical
effect caused by the quantity

ANALOG AND DIGITAL

INSTRUMENTS
Physical variables of interest in the form of
continuous or stepless variations
Physical variables are represented by digital
quantities

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS

Instruments are those that require some source
of auxiliary power
The energy requirements of the instruments are
met entirely from the input signal

Automatic and manually operated

Manually operated requires the service of
human operator
Automated doesn't requires human
operator

Contacting And Non Contacting Instruments

A contacting with measuring medium
Measure the desired input even though they
are not in close contact with the measuring
medium

Absolute and Secondary Instruments

These instruments give the value of the electrical
quantity in terms of absolute quantities
Deflection of the instruments can read directly

Intelligent instruments
Microprocessors are incorporated with
measuring instruments

Help topics
http://www.tresnainstrument.com/education.
html

Characteristics of Measuring Instrument

Sensitivity
Readability
Range of accuracy
Precision

Definition
Sensitivity- Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of
the magnitude of response (output signal) to the
magnitude of the quantity being measured
(input signal)
Readability- Readability is defined as the
closeness with which the scale of the analog
instrument can be read

Sensitivity
If the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity
of the instrument is the slope of the calibration curve.
If the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the
sensitivity varies with the input.

Sensitivity
This is the relationship between a change in the
output reading for a given change of the input.
(This relationship may be linear or non-linear.)

Sensitivity is often known as scale factor or

instrument magnification and an instrument with a
large sensitivity (scale factor) will indicate a large
movement of the indicator for a small input
change.

Output, Vo (V)

Force, F

Slope = 5 V/kN

Output, Vo

Load Cell

Input, Fi (kN)

Block Diagram:

Input, F (kN)

Output, Vo (V)
K

Sensitivity, K = 5 V/kN

Definition
Range of accuracy- Accuracy of a measuring

system is defined as the closeness of the

instrument output to the true value of the

measured quantity
Precision- Precision is defined as the ability of the

instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings

within a given accuracy

Readability
Readability

is defined as the ease with which

readings may be taken with an instrument.

Readability difficulties may often occur due to

parallax errors when an observer is noting the
position of a pointer on a calibrated scale

Readability
What is the value ?

What is the value ?

What is the value ?

Accuracy
Accuracy = the extent to which a measured
value agrees with a true value
The difference between the measured value &
the true value is known as Error of
measurement
Accuracy is the quality of conformity

Example: Accuracy
Who is more accurate when measuring a book that
has a true length of 17.0 cm?
A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
B ::
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

Precision
The precision of a measurement depends on the
instrument used to measure it.
For example, how long is this block?

How big is the beetle?

Measure between the head
and the tail!
Between 1.5 and 1.6 in
Measured length: 1.54 in
The 1 and 5 are known with
certainty
The last digit (4) is estimated
between the two nearest fine
division marks.

Example: Precision
Who is more precise when measuring the same 17.0
cm book?
A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
B ::
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

Accuracy vs. Precision

High Accuracy
High Precision

High Precision
Low Accuracy

The person hit the bull's-eye?

Three targets
with three
arrows each to
shoot.
How do they
compare?

Both
accurate
and precise

Precise but
not
accurate

Neither
accurate
nor precise

Can you define accuracy vs. precision?

Uncertainty
The word uncertainty casts a doubt about the
exactness of the measurement results
True value = Estimated value + Uncertainty

Why Is There Uncertainty?

Measurements are performed with instruments,
and no instrument can read to an infinite number of
decimal places
Which of the instruments below has the greatest
uncertainty in measurement?

Reading a Meterstick
. l2. . . . I . . . . I3 . . . .I . . . . I4. .

cm

First digit (known)

= 2

2.?? cm

Second digit (known)

= 0.7

2.7? cm

Third digit (estimated) between

0.05- 0.08 cm

Length reported

2.77 cm

or

2.76 cm

or

2.78 cm

Known + Estimated Digits

In 2.77 cm
Known digits 2 and 7 are 100% certain
The third digit 7 is estimated (uncertain)
In the reported length, all three digits
(2.77 cm) are significant including the
estimated one

Performance of Instruments
All instrumentation systems are characterized
by the system characteristics or system
response
There are two basic characteristics of
Measuring instruments, they are
Static character
Dynamic character

Static Characteristics
The instruments, which are used to measure
the quantities which are slowly varying with
time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with
time, is called static characteristics.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTRUMENTS

Accuracy

Dead zone

Precision

Backlash

Sensitivity

True value

Resolution

Hysteresis

Threshold

Linearity

Drift

Range or Span

Error

Bias

Repeatability

Tolerance

Reproducibility

Stability

Dynamic Characteristics
Steady state periodic
Transient
Speed of response
Measuring lag

Fidelity
Dynamic error

 Steady state periodic Magnitude has a

definite repeating time cycle
Transient Magnitude whose output does not

have definite repeating time cycle

Speed of response- System responds to
changes in the measured quantity

Resolution
This is defined as the smallest input increment
change that gives some small but definite
numerical change in the output.

Threshold
This minimum value of input below which no
output can be appeared is known as threshold
of the instrument.

Output

input

Drift
Drift or Zero drift is variation in the output of
an instrument which is not caused by any
change in the input; it is commonly caused by
internal temperature changes and component
instability.

Sensitivity drift defines the amount by which

instruments sensitivity varies as ambient
conditions change.

Output

Output

sensitivity drift
zero
drift
input

Output

input
sensitivity drift

zero
drift
input

 Error The deviation of the true value from

the desired value is called Error
Repeatability It is the closeness value of
same output for same input under same
operating condition
Reproducibility - It is the closeness value of
same output for same input under same
operating condition over a period of time

Range
The Range is the total range of values which
an instrument is capable of measuring.

Hysteresis
This is the algebraic difference between the average
errors at corresponding points of measurement
when approached from opposite directions, i.e.
increasing as opposed to decreasing values of the
input.
Measured
Value

Ideal

Actual/ Input
Value

Hysteresis is
caused by
energy
storage/
dissipation in
the system.

Zero stability
The ability of the instrument to return to
zero reading after the measured has returned to
zero

Dead band
This is the range of different input values over
which there is no change in output value.

Linearity-

The ability to reproduce the input

characteristics symmetrically and linearly

 Backlash Lost motion or free play of

mechanical elements are known as backlash

True value The errorless value of measured

variable is known as true value
Bias The Constant Error
Tolerance- Maximum Allowable error in
Measurement

Dynamic Characteristics
The

set

of

criteria

defined

for

the

instruments, which are changes rapidly with

time, is called dynamic characteristics.

 Measuring lag
Retardation type :Begins immediately after the
change in measured quantity
Time delay lag : Begins after a dead time after the
application of the input

Fidelity- The degree to which a measurement

system indicates changes in the measured
quantity without error
Dynamic error- Difference between the true
value of the quantity changing with time &
the value indicated by the measurement
system

Errors in Instruments
Error = True value Measured value
or
Error = Measured value - True value

Types of Errors
Error of Measurement
Instrumental error
Error of observation
Based on nature of errors

Based on control

Error of Measurement
Systematic

error

-Predictable

way

accordance due to conditions change

Random error - Unpredictable manner
Parasitic error - Incorrect execution of

measurement

in

Instrumental error
Error of a physical measure
Error of a measuring mechanism
Error of indication of a measuring instrument
Error due to temperature

Error due to friction

Error due to inertia

Error of observation
Reading error
Parallax error
Interpolation error

Nature of Errors
Systematic error
Random error

Based on control
Controllable errors
Calibration errors
Environmental (Ambient /Atmospheric Condition)
Errors
Stylus pressure errors
Avoidable errors

Non - Controllable errors

Correction
Correction is defined as a value which is added
algebraically to the uncorrected result of the
measurement to compensate to an assumed
systematic error.
Ex : Vernier Caliper, Micrometer

Calibration
Calibration is the process of determining and
adjusting an instruments accuracy to make
sure its accuracy is with in manufacturing
specifications.

Interchangeability
A part which can be substituted for the
component manufactured to the small shape
and dimensions is known a interchangeable
part.
The operation of substituting the part for
similar manufactured components of the
shape and dimensions is known as
interchangeability.