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Modulation
Chapter No.2
(Digital Communications Fundamentals
and Applications By Bernard Sklar)
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Broadband Signalling:
2) Frequency-division multiplexing is
possible
3)Bi-directional transmission
3) Unidirectional transmission
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Example
An example of a dedicated channel where the entire
bandwidth of the medium is used as one single channel is a
LAN. Almost every wired LAN today uses a dedicated
channel for two stations communicating with each other. In a
bus topology LAN with multipoint connections, only two
stations can communicate with each other at each moment in
time (timesharing); the other stations need to refrain from
sending data. In a star topology LAN, the entire channel
between each station and the hub is used for communication
between these two entities.
In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional
to the bit rate;
if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.
3.9
10
3.11
Examples
1. An example of broadband transmission using modulation is the sending of
computer data through a telephone subscriber line, the line connecting a
resident to the central telephone office. These lines are designed to carry
voice with a limited bandwidth. The channel is considered a bandpass
channel. We convert the digital signal from the computer to an analog
signal, and send the analog signal. We can install two converters to change
the digital signal to analog and vice versa at the receiving end. The
converter, in this case, is called a modem
Textual
source info.
Analog
info.
Sample
Quantize
Pulse
modulate
Encode
Bit stream
Format
Analog
info.
sink
Low-pass
filter
Textual
info.
Decode
Transmit
Pulse
waveforms
Channel
Demodulate/
Detect
Receive
Digital info.
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This is the conversion of analog continuous time signal into discrete time
signal by taking the samples of the signal at discrete time intervals
3. Baseband transmission
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Natural Sampling
In natural sampling a band limited signal x(t) is multiplied
by the pulse train or switching waveform xp(t) which has
width T and amplitude 1/T
It can b viewed as opening and closing of a switch
Top of each sampled pulse xp(t)of maintains the original
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Sampling
Time domain
x (t )
xs (t )
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Frequency domain
Xs ( f ) X ( f ) X ( f )
| X( f )|
| X ( f ) |
| Xs( f ) |
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Aliasing
In signal processing and related disciplines, aliasing refers to
an effect that causes different signals to become
indistinguishable (or aliases of one another) when sampled. It
also refers to the distortion or artifact that results when the
signal reconstructed from samples is different from the original
continuous signal.
OR
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Aliasing
When a digital image is viewed, a reconstruction is
performed by a display or printer device, and by the
eyes and the brain. If the image data is not properly
processed during sampling or reconstruction, the
reconstructed image will differ from the original image,
and an alias is seen.
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Aliasing effect
LP filter
Nyquist rate
aliasing
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fs-fm and fm
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Sampling theorem
Analog
signal
Sampling
process
Pulse amplitude
modulated (PAM) signal
is called
24
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Example 4.6
For an intuitive example of the Nyquist theorem, let us sample a
simple sine wave at three sampling rates: fs = 4f (2 times the Nyquist
rate),
fs
=
2f
(Nyquist
rate),
and
fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure 4.24 shows the sampling
and the subsequent recovery of the signal.
It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create a good
approximation of the original sine wave (part a). Oversampling in
part b can also create the same approximation, but it is redundant
and unnecessary. Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not
produce a signal that looks like the original sine wave.
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Figure 4.24 Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates
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Example 4.10
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the
minimum sampling rate for this signal?
Solution
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f, where f is
the maximum frequency in the signal. Therefore, we can sample
this signal at 2 times the highest frequency (200 kHz). The
sampling rate is therefore 400,000 samples per second.
Example 4.11
A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is
the minimum sampling rate for this signal?
Solution
We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case because we
do not know where the bandwidth starts or ends. We do not know
the maximum frequency in the signal.
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Quantization
The samples from the analog signal are not yet in the digital
form (bit stream) because these samples have infinite
amplitudes.
To make the amplitudes have finite levels (i.e. belong to a
finite range of amplitude levels), different amplitude levels
are created known as the quantized level.
Each sample is going to be mapped into one of these levels
(i.e. the nearest level for that sample).
More levels mean lower error of mapping known as the
quantized error but at the expense of increasing BW.
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Quantization
Quantized
values
Out
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In
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Quantization
Average quantization noise power
2=
2 =
+2
2 1/
(1) 2
2
22/4
= 2
q
/12
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Encoding (PCM)
A uniform linear quantizer is called Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM).
Pulse code modulation (PCM): Encoding the quantized signals
into a digital word (PCM word or codeword).
Each quantized sample is digitally encoded into an l bits codeword
where L in the number of quantization levels and
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Quantization
Assume original signal has instantaneous amplitudes in
between Vmin and Vmax
Divide the range into L zones each of height
V max V min
L
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Example 4.12
What is the SNRdB in the example of Figure 4.26?
Solution
We can use the formula to find the quantization. We have eight
levels and 3 bits per sample, so
SNRdB = 6.02(3) + 1.76 = 19.82 dB
Increasing the number of levels increases the SNR.
Example 4.13
A telephone subscriber line must have an SNRdB above 40. What is
the minimum number of bits per sample?
Solution
We can calculate the number of bits as
Telephone companies usually assign 7 or 8 bits per sample.
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Example 4.14
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming
8 bits per sample?
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz.
So the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as follows:
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Example 4.15
We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz. If we send the analog
signal, we need a channel with a minimum bandwidth of 4 kHz. If
we digitize the signal and send 8 bits per sample, we need a channel
with a minimum bandwidth of 8 4 kHz = 32 kHz.
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Performance criteria
For digital signals, probability of bit error( PB ) is
the main performance criteria. Higher this error rate,
lower the performance of such systems.
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X()
A random variable X is a function that assign a real number, X()to each outcome
in the sample space S of a random experiment.
Domain of the random variable -- S
Range of the random variable -- Sx
HTH
THH
HTT
THT
TTH
TTT
44
If FX(x) (cdf) changes value only in jumps and is constant between jumps, i.e. FX(x)
is a staircase function, then X is called a discrete random variable.
The function px(x) is called the probability mass function (pmf) of the discrete r.v. X.
Properties of px(x):
0 p X ( xk ) 1 k 1,2,...
p X ( x) 0
x xk
(k 1,2,...)
p X ( xk ) 1
k
x
-1
0
1
2
3
4
Xx
{TTT}
{TTT,TTH,THT,HTT}
{TTT,TTH,THT,HTT,HHT,HTH,THH}
S
S
pk =P[X=k]
FX(x)
1/8
3/8
3/8
1/8
0
1/8
4/8
7/8
1
1
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Pdf of a Signal
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Sample
values
Formalizing Probability
The probability that random variable x takes on a value in the
range of x1 to x2 is calculated from the PDF of x as:
AWGN
Properties
The noise signal has low amplitudes with high probabilities
and high amplitudes with low probability.
So the noise signal is mostly low amplitude signals.
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Power of AWGN
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