Process Engineering

Basics of Process Planning

for computer implementation

IE550 -- Manufacturing Systems

Fall 2008
Dr. R. A. Wysk

01/16/15

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Chapter 6 -- Process Engineering

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The Engineering Process

Design
specifications

Process
capability

Process planning

Stock Material

Processes

Inspection

Finished part

Need to understand the process capabilities.

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PROCESS CAPABILITIES
Process: certain way an operation is carried out, e.g. turning,
drilling, milling.
Tool: physical object which is used to carrying out a process,
e.g. twist drill, spade drill, gun drill.
Machine tool: machine on which process is carried out, e.g. lathe,
drill press, milling machine, machining center.

Process capability: The geometry and tolerance a manufacturing process

can produce, and its limitations, . i.e. shape and size, dimensional and
geometric tolerances, material removal rate, relative cost, other
cutting constraints.

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LEVELS OF PROCESS CAPABILITIES

Universal level:
Handbook and textbook level data. Aggregate characterization of what
can be expected. General measures of the process capability such as
shape and size. What the process can accomplish in an average shop
on a typical machine tool.
Shop level:
Specific to a particular manufacturing system. What is the best
attainable capability in one specific shop, e.g. the turning capability of
the student machine shop is far worse than that in the shop of a
precision spindle manufacturer.
Machine level:
Specific to a machine. Machines in the same shop has very different
capability. A table top lathe can machine a small part, yet a large slant
bed lathe may be able to handle a 20"x 10' part.

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PROCESS KNOWLEDGE COLLECTION

Few scientific data available or published.
Most process knowledge are gained during actual manufacturing
practice.
Practical manufacturing knowledge is still an art instead of a science.
Certain information can be found in the textbooks, handbooks,
machining data handbook, etc.
Tolerance capability may be obtained from control charts, inspection
reports, and on-line sensor data.

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EXPERIENCE-BASED PLANNING
Relay on one's experience. Most frequently this is the way industry
operates.
Problems:
a. Experience requires a significant period of time to accumulate.
b. Experience represents only approximate, not exact knowledge.
c. Experience is not directly applicable to new processes or new
systems.

Need to automate.

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MACHINIST HANDBOOKS
Universal or shop level knowledge.
e.g. Surface-finish chart - limiting extremes of process
8 in - use grinding, polishing, lapping
Usually not with milling, however, finish milling may achieve the
specification.
The information is general. It does not mean every machine or shop
can achieve that accuracy.
Turning limit (6.3 - 0.4 m or 250 - 16 inch)
Diamond turning at Lawrence Livermore Lab
(12.5 nm or 0.47 inch)

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SURFACE FINISH CHART

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01/16/15

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Dimensional accuracies for Process Planning

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HOLE MAKING KNOWLEDGE

Following data is taken from a manufacturer's process planner's handbook.
I. Dia < 0.5"
A. True position > 0.010"
1. Tolerance > 0.010"
Drill the hole.
2. Tolerance < 0.010"
Drill and ream the hole.
B.

True position < 0.010

1. Tolerance < 0.010"
Drill, then finish bore the hole.
2. Tolerance < 0.002"
Drill, semi-finish bore, then finish bore the hole.

II. 0.05" < dia < 1.00"

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DECISION TABLES
To computerize the decision making, one simple way is to use decision tables.
If the conditions set in an entry are satisfied, the actions in the entry are
executed. The stub contains the condition or action statements. Entries mark
which conditions or actions are applicable. Each entry contain one rule.

Stub

Entries

Conditions

Actions

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EXAMPLE DECISION TABLE

Dia < 0.5
0.5 < Dia < 1.0
T.P < 0.010
T.P < 0.010
Tol > 0.010
0.002 < Tol < 0.010
Tol < 0.002
Drill
Ream
Semi-finish bore
Finish bore

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X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

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DECISION TREES
To computerize the decision making, one simple way is to use decision trees.
Decision tree is a graph with a single root and branches emanating from the
root. Each branch has a condition statement associate with it. Actions are
written at the terminal. Probabilities may be assigned to the branches. In this
case, the tree represents probabilistic state transitions.
terminal
Branch
Root

The node may be "AND" nodes

or "OR" nodes.
Node

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EXAMPLE DECISION TREE

Tol > 0.010

Drill

Tol < 0.010

Dia < 0.5

T.P < 0.010

Drill, then ream

T.P < 0.010

0.5 < Dia < 1.0

0.002 < Tol < 0.010

Drill, then finish bore

Tol < 0.002

Drill, semifinish bore,
then finish bore

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PROCESS-CAPABILITY ANALYSIS
PROCESS BOUNDARY Data
;
; twist drilling (code 1)
; 111: hole
( ( if
(shape ! 111 = )
( length ! 12.0 diameter ! * <= )
( diameter! 0.0625 >= )
( diameter! 2.000 <= )
( tlp ! diameter ! 0.5 ** 0.007 * >= )
( tln ! diameter ! 0.5 ** 0.007 * 0.003 + >= )
( straightness ! length ! diameter ! / 3. ** 0.0005 * 0.002 + >= )
( roundness ! 0.004 >= )
( parallelism ! length ! diameter ! / 3. ** 0.001 * 0.003 + >= )
( true ! 0.008 >= )
( sf ! 100 >= )
)
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PROCESSES, TOOLS, AND MACHINES

Process

SubProcess
Facemilling

Milling

Peripheralmilling

Endmilling

Drilling

Reaming

Broaching

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Plain
Insertedtooth
Plain
SlitttingSaw
Form
Insertedtooth
Staggeredtooth
Angle
Tslotcutter
Woodruffkeyseatcutter
Formmillingcutter
Plain
Shellend
Hollowend
Ballend
Twistdrill
Spadedrill
Deepholedrill
Gundrill
Trepanningcutter
Centerdrill
Combinationdrill
Countersink
Counterbore
Shellreamer
Expansionreamer
Adjustablereamer
Taperreamer
Adjustableboringbar
Simpleboringbar

Boring

Turning

Cutters

Turning
Facing
Parting

Knurling

Boring
Drilling
Reaming

Plain
Inserted

Knurlingtool
Boringbars
Drills
Reamers

Formtool

Machines
Verticalmillingmachine
Horizontalmillingmachine

Columnandknee
Bedtype
Planertype
Specialtype

Machiningcenter

Column&upright
Gangdrillingmachine
Radialdrillingmachine
Multispindledrillingmachine
Benchtype
Deepthholedrillingmachine

Drillpress
Lathe

Lathe
Boringmachine
Jigbore
Speedlathe
Enginelathe
Toolroomlathe
Speciallathe

Turretlathe
Screwmachine

Broachingpress
VerticalPulldown
VerticalPullup
Surfacebroachingmachine
Horizontalbroachingmachine
Surfacebroachingmachine
Rotarybroachingmachine

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PROCESSES, TOOLS, AND MACHINES

Process

SubProcess

Cutters

Sawing

Hacksaw
Bandsaw
Circularsaw

Reciprocatingsaw
Bandsaw
Circularsaw

Shaping

Formtool

Shaper
Horizontal&Vertical

Insertedtool

Doublehousingplaner
Opensideplaner
Edgeplaner
PitPlaner

Grindingwheels
Points

Externalcylindricalgrinder
Internalcylindricalgrinder
Surfacegrinder
Creepfeedgrinder
Toolgrinder
Diskgrinder

Honing

Honingstone

Honingmachine

Lapping

Lap

Lappingmachine

Tapping

Tap

Drillpress
Millingmachine
Machiningcenter

Planing

Grinding

01/16/15

Machines

Cylindricalgrinding
Centerlessgrinding
Internalgrinding
Externalgrinding
Surfacegrinding

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CUTTING EDGE AND FEED

cutting edge

Drill

Boring

Reaming

minor feed

Turning

Peripheral
Milling

Face
Milling

feed range

Ball End
Milling
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Broaching

Sawing

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VOLUME PRODUCING CAPABILITIES

Process
Milling

SubProcess
Facemilling
Peripheralmilling

Plain
SlitttingSaw
Form
Insertedtooth
Staggeredtooth
Angle
Tslotcutter
Woodruffkeyseatcutter

flatbottomvolume
slot
formedvolume

Tslot
Internalgroove

Endmilling

Plain
Shellend
Hollowend
Ballend
Twistdrill
Spadedrill
Deepholedrill
Gundrill
Trepanningcutter
Centerdrill
Combinationdrill
Countersink
Counterbore
Shellreamer
Expansionreamer
Adjustablereamer
Taperreamer

pocket,slot,flat

Reaming

Adjustableboringbar
Simpleboringbar

Boring

Broaching

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VolumeCapabilities

flatbottomvolume

Drilling

Turning

Cutters
Plain
Insertedtooth

Turning
Facing
Parting

Knurling

Boring
Drilling
Reaming

Plain
Inserted

Knurlingtool
Boringbars
Drills
Reamers

Formtool

sculpturedsurface,flat
roundhole
roundhole
deeproundhole
deeproundhole
largeroundhole
shallowroundhole
multiplediameterroundhole
countersinkhole
counterborehole
thinwallofroundhole
thinwallofroundhole
thinwallofroundhole
thinwallofroundhole
thinwallofroundhole
thinwallofroundhole
?
disk
disk

thinwallofroundhole
roundhole
thinwallofroundhole
flatbottomvolume
slot
step
polyhedralthroughhole
formedthroughvolume

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VOLUME PRODUCING CAPABILITIES

Process

SubProcess

Cutters

VolumeCapabilities

Hacksaw
Bandsaw
Circularsaw

Sawing
Shaping

Formtool

flatbottomvolume,slot

Insertedtool

flatbottomvolume

Grindingwheels
Points

?
internalwallofroundhole
flatbottomvolume

Honing

Honingstone

Lapping

Lap

mostsurfaces

Tapping

Tap

threadedwallofhole

Planing

Grinding

01/16/15

Cylindricalgrinding
Centerlessgrinding
Internalgrinding
Externalgrinding
Surfacegrinding

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PROCESS TOLERANCE RANGE

Process

SubProcess
Facemilling

Milling

Peripheralmilling

Endmilling

Cutters

Plain
Insertedtooth
Plain
SlitttingSaw
Form
Insertedtooth
Staggeredtooth
Angle
Tslotcutter
Woodruffkeyseatcutter
Formmillingcutter
Plain
Shellend
Hollowend
Ballend
Twistdrill
Spadedrill
Trepanningcutter
Centerdrill
Combinationdrill
Countersink
Counterbore

Deepholedrill
Gundrill

Drilling

Shellreamer
Expansionreamer
Adjustablereamer
Taperreamer

Reaming

Tolerances,surfacefinish,etc.capabilities

roughtingfinishing
tol0.0020.001
flatness0.0010.001
angularity0.0010.001
parallelism0.0010.001
surfacefinish5030
roughtingfinishing
tol0.0020.001
flatness0.0010.001
surfacefinish5030
roughtingfinishing
tol0.0040.004
parallelism0.00150.0015
surfacefinish6050
length/dia=3usual=8maximum
mtl<Rc30usual<Rc50maximum

usuallbest
DiaTolerance
01/8+0.0030.001
Trueposition0.0080.0004
roundness0.004
1/81/4+0.0040.001
surfacefinish100
1/41/2+0.0060.001
1/21+0.0080.002
12+0.0100.003
24+0.0120.004
DiaTolerance
surfacefinish>100
<5/80.0015
straightness0.005in6inch
>5/80.002
DiaTolerance
roughtingfinishing
01/20.0005to0.001 roundness0.00050.0005
1/210.001
trueposition0.010.01
120.002
surfacefinish12550
240.003
length/dia5to8

Adjustableboringbar
Simpleboringbar

Boring

Turning

Broaching

01/16/15

Turning
Facing
Parting

Knurling

Boring
Drilling
Reaming

Plain
Inserted
Knurlingtool
Boringbars
Drills
Reamers
Formtool

DiaTolerance
roughingfinishing
03/40.0010.0002
3/410.00150.0002
120.0020.0004
240.0030.0008
460.0040.001
6120.0050.002
diametertolerance
to1.00.001
120.002
240.003

straightness0.0002
roundness0.0003
trueposition0.0001
surfacefinish8

surfacefinish250to16

tolerance0.001
surfacefinish125to32

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PROCESS TOLERANCE RANGE

Process

SubProcess

Cutters

Sawing

Hacksaw
Bandsaw
Circularsaw

Shaping

Formtool

Planing

Insertedtool

Internalgrinding

Cylindricalgrinding
Centerlessgrinding

Externalgrinding
Surfacegrinding
Grinding

Internal

centerground
andcenterless

flat

01/16/15

Tolerances,surfacefinish,etc.capabilities

lengthtolsquarenesssurfacefinishcuttingratematerial
0.010.220030036sqin/mintoRc45
0.010.2200300430sqin/mintoRc45
0.0080.2125736sqin/mintoRc45
roughtingfinishing
locationtol0.0050.001
flatness0.0010.0005
surfacefinish6032(castiron)
surfacefinish12532(steel)
DiaTolerance
roughingfinishing
010.000150.00005
120.00020.00005
240.00030.0001
480.00050.00013
8160.00080.0002
roughingfinishing
tolerance0.00050.0001
parallelism0.00050.0002
roundness0.00050.0001
surfacefin82
roughingfinishing
tolerance0.0010.0001
parallelism0.0010.0001
surfacefin322

Honing

Honingstone

DiaTolerance
roughingfinishing
1+0.00050.0+0.00010.0
2+0.00080.0+0.00050.0
4+0.00100.0+0.00080.0

Lapping

Lap

roughingfinishing
tolerance0.0000250.000015
flatness0.0000250.000012
surfacefin4614

Tapping

Tap

tolerance0.003
roundness0.003
surfacefin75

surfacefinish4
roundness0.0005

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AUTOMOTIVE PARTS REQUIREMENTS

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Cylinder bore13 - 25 in
honed
Main bearing bore
63 - 200 in
Crankshaft bearing 3-13 in polished
Brake drum 63-125 in
turned
Clutch pressure plate 25-100 in
turned

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BASIC MACHINING CALCULATIONS

Machining time
Total amount of time to finish a workpiece.
For drilling, one pass turning, and milling:

L
tm = L +
vf
L : clearance or overhang distance.

For multipass turning

D D +
i
n p= o
integer round up
2a
p

For milling
+

w +
n p = h
ap D

01/16/15

n
p : # of passes

: total height of material to be removed

h
w: workpiece width

: cutter overlapping factor

= effective cutting width / tool dia 1.0
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BASIC MACHINING CALCULATIONS

Machine control parameters are: f, V, ap.
a. Feed and feedrate
:f inch / rev
V f : inch / min
rp m

V f= fn

turning or drilling

V f = f nN

milling

N:

Vf

# of teech in milling
1 in drilling

n : rpm

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BASIC MACHINING CALCULATIONS

Cutting speed
V

V in sfpm
V = D n
12

surface speed

D: Diameter
Depth of cut

D0

a
inch
p

ap =

01/16/15

Do Di
2

Di

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BASIC MACHINING CALCULATIONS

D
4

Metal removal rate

in 3 min
MRR

MRR

cutting time tool life

vf

Drilling
2

D
MRR =
vf
4
= 3D f V

(D

Milling
= a pw v
MRR

D i)

Turning
2
2

( D o D i)
MRR =
vf
4
= 6( Do Di ) f V

vf

W
vf

ap

12 a p w n
=
D
01/16/15

fV
4- 29

BASIC MACHINING CALCULATIONS

Machining time
Total amount of time to finish a workpiece.
L

For drilling, one pass turning, and milling:

L
tm = L +
vf
L : clearance or overhang distance.

For multipass turning

D D +
i
n p= o
integer round up
2a
p

For milling
+

w +
n p = h
ap D

01/16/15

n
p : # of passes

: total height of material to be removed

h
w: workpiece width

: cutter overlapping factor

= effective cutting width / tool dia 1.0
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CUTTING FORCE AND POWER

Process
Milling

SubProcess

CuttingForceF c (lb)

Facemilling

K F v FafFapFDtFbwFz F

Peripheralmilling
Endmilling

K Ff FapFDtFbw z

Drilling
K Ff FapFDtF
torque

Reaming

Power(hp)

FcVc
33,000m

T srpm
63,030m

Boring
Turning

Turning
Facing

K Ff FapF

FcVc
33,000 m

K FapFDmzc

FcVc
33,000 m

Shaping
Planing
Broaching
where:
Vc::cuttingspeedfpm
m:machineefficiency
Ts:Torque

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MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE

Process

SubProcess

MRR

Facemilling
Milling

Drilling

2
( D /4)fND:tool
diameter

Boring

12Vf ap

Turning

01/16/15

W:widthofthecutter
Peripheralmilling WapfnN ap:depthofcut
f:feed
n:numberofteeth
Endmilling
N:spindlerpm

Turning

12Vf ap

Facing

6Vf ap

Broaching

tr:risepertooth
12trWVnW:Widthofthetool
V:cuttingspeed
n:numberoftoothin
contactwithpart

Shaping

Ltf Ns

L:strocklength
Ns:numberofstrockperminute

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CONSTRAINTS
Spindle-speed
constraint:

nmin nw nmax

ntmin
nt ntmax

workpiece
tool

Feed constraint:
f min f f max
Cutting-force constraint:
F
c Fc,max
Power constraint:
Pm Pmax
Surface-finish constraint:
R
a Ra,max

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MODELS
Multiple pass model

np

t pr t h + i
(t m
=1

c pr

t im
+ t t t)
n

p
cb
n + cmt h + ci pr
i=1
b

i : pass number

Additional constraint:

depth of cut a p
np
: number of passes is a function of the depth of cut.
Productivity model:
s c pr
pr t
pr
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s: sale price/piece

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