Human

Human Reliability
Reliability

HUMAN FACTORS &

SUPERVISORY CONTROL
Rahmanarief-2010

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Human factors is a multidisciplinary

field

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Human: Weakness & Strength

Humans need some degree of motivation.
Humans possess inductive capabilities.
Human reaction time is slow in comparison to that of machines.
Human consistency can be low.
Humans have a high degree of intelligence, and are quite capable of

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

applying judgments in solving unexpected difficulties or problems.

Humans are subject to fatigue that increases with the number of hours
worked and decreases with rest.
Humans are significantly affected by environmental factors such as
noise, temperature, and hazardous materials, as well as they require air
to breathe.
Human memory could be constrained by elapsed time, but it has no
capacity limitation problem.
Humans may be absent from work due to various factors including
illness, strikes, training, and personal matters.
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Machines: Weakness & Strength

Machines need no motivation.
Machines have a rather poor inductive ability.
Machines possess a fast reaction time

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Machines are quite consistent, unless

Machines have rather limited intelligence
Machines are free from fatigue, but
Machines are not easily affected by for

applications in unfriendly environments.

The machine memory is not influenced
Machines are subject to failures.
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Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Several Behaviour of Human

Humans are often quite reluctant to admit mistakes.

Humans often overlook or misread instructions and labels.

Most people fail to recheck specified procedures for mistakes.

Humans frequently respond irrationally in emergency situations.

Humans normally carry out tasks while thinking about other things.

Humans are normally poor estimators of clearance, distance, and

speed.

A significant proportion of humans become quite complacent after

successfully handling hazardous or dangerous items over a long period
of time.

People frequently use their hands first to test or explore.

People get easily confused with unfamiliar things.

Generally, people regard manufactured items as being safe.

Usually humans tend to hurry at one time or another.

People expect electrically powered

switches to move upward, to the
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Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Human Capabilities

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Terms and Definitions

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Human reliability.

This is the probability of accomplishing a task successfully by humans

at any required stage in system operation within a given minimum time
limit (if the time requirement is specified).
Human error.
This is the failure to carry out a specified task (or the performance of a
forbidden action) that could lead to disruption of scheduled operations
or result in damage to property and equipment.
Human performance reliability.
This is the probability that a human will perform all stated human
functions subject to specified conditions.
Accident.
This is an event that involved damage to a specified system or
equipment that suddenly disrupts the ongoing or potential
system/equipment output.
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Human Error : Fact and Figures

In 1990, there were about 1 million traffic deaths and around 40

million traffic injuries worldwide; by 2020, the World Health

Organization projects that deaths from accidents will rise to around
2.3 million .
Each year over 1.6 billion passengers worldwide travel by air.
The estimated annual cost of world road crashes is in the excess of

$500 billion.
Human error costs the maritime industry $541 million per year, as

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

per the findings of the United Kingdom Protection and Indemnity

(UKP&I) Club .
In 2004, 53% of the railway switching yard accidents (excluding

highway rail crossing train accidents) in the United States were due
to human factors causes .
During the period 19961998, over 70% of bus accidents were due

to driver error in five developing countries: Thailand, Nepal, India,

Zimbabwe, and Tanzania.
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Human Error : Fact and Figures

Over 80% of Marine accidents are caused or influenced by human

and organization factors .

Maintenance and inspection have been found to be factors in

around 12% of major aircraft accidents.

In Norway, approximately 62% of the 13 railway accidents that

caused fatalities or injuries during the period 19701998, were the

result of human error.
In India, over 400 railway accidents occur annually and

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

approximately 66% of these accidents are, directly or indirectly,

due to human error.
Human error is cited more frequently than mechanical problems in

approximately 5,000 truck-related deaths that occur each year in

the United States .
A study of cartruck crashes revealed that most of these crashes

were due to human error either committed by the truck driver or

car driver.
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Human Error : Fact and Figures

During the period 19831996, there were 29,798 general aviation

crashes, 371 major airline crashes, and 1,735 commuter/air taxi

crashes. A study of these crashes revealed that pilot error was a
probable cause for 85% of general aviation crashes, 38% of major
airline crashes, and 74% of commuter/air taxi crashes .
A study of 6091 major accident claims (i.e., over $100,000)

associated with all classes of commercial ships, conducted over a

period of 15 years, by the UK P&K Club revealed that 62% of the
claims were attributable to human error.
Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Human error contributes to 8488% of tanker accidents.

A study of data obtained form the United Kingdom Civil Aviation

Authority Mandatory Occurrence Report database revealed that

maintenance error events per million flights almost doubled over
the period 19902000 [27].
In 1979, in a DC-10 aircraft accident due to improper

maintenance procedures followed by maintenance personnel, 272

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people died.

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Accident by Primary Causes : Aircraft

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Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Human Information Processing

*STSS = short term sensory storage

* Perception drives bottoms-up processing while long term memory drives top-down
processing
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Working Memory
Also known as short term memory
Limited capacity
Information will decay unless maintained in

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

working memory through the articulatory loop

(rehearsal) or stored in long term memory.
Memory lost within 30 seconds unless rehearsed

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Long Term Memory

Semantic network of knowledge

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Knowledge is procedural, declarative,

and general
Encoded in terms of meaning and
eventsNot a random process
A loosely structured database
Unlimited capacity
Development of mental models
An abstract mental structure that allows
understanding and insight into an event,
problem, etc.
How knowledge was encoded influences
recall
Perception vs. Long Term Memory
Recognition is much easier than recall
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Problems with Memory

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Unreliable
Recognition vs. recall
Do we forget or does information decay?

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More problem with memory

Retrieval and Inference
False memories

Effect of Prior Knowledge

Memory reconstruction often uses general knowledge and
expectations to fill in the gaps

Memory can distort perception in systematic ways.

Tendency to overestimate colors, slow speeds (but underestimate high
ones!), distances, etc.
Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Eyewitness testimony

Framing effect
Subjects shown film of automobile accident. Subjects asked: Did you
see a broken headlight? or Did you see the broken headlight? (There
was actually none.) Results: Subjects more likely to respond yes to the
broken headlight.
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Memory & Automated System Design

Calculations, comparisons, and workspace navigation

tasks which require extensive use of working memory

increases the mental workload for that task.
Also increases likelihood of error

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Can increase working memory capacity by using two

senses instead of one

Promote consistent mapping
- Negative transfer
Mental model support
- Training strategies
- Part task
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Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Information Processing & Designing

Automation

Parasuraman, Sheridan, Wickens,

2000
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Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

10 Levels of Automation

Sheridan and Verplank

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Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Supervisory Control Architecture

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Supervisory Control : Examples

Autopilot -Flight

Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Management System
Autonomous Vehicle
Process Control Plant
Thermostat
Word Processing
Program
Cruise Control
Automated Steering
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Some Usefull Formula related to Human

factors
Rest Period Estimation
Maximum Safe Car Speed Estimation
Inspector Performance Estimation
Character Height Estimation
Brightness Contrast Estimation
Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Glare Constant Estimation

(see reference)

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Human
Human Reliability
Reliability

Thank U...Q&A Session

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m

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