Introduction to

Manufacturing Technology
(Overview of Manufacturing technologies)

Instructors:
(1)Shantanu Bhattacharya, ME, IITK,
email: bhattacs@iitk.ac.in
(2)Prof. Arvind Kumar, ME, IITK email:
arvindkr@iitk.ac.in

Overview of the Lecture

Manufacturing systems approaches.
Basic manufacturing processes. (Casting, Forming
process, Fabrication process, Material removal process)
Advanced Machining processes (ECM, EDM, EBM, LBM,
AJM, USM processes)
Micro-manufacturing processes (Etching, Deposition,
Lithography, Replication and molding, Dip-pen
lithography, Compression molding, Nano-imprint
lithography)

Manufacturing Systems
Approach
Definition of Manufacturing Technology:
Manufacturing technology provides the tools that enable production of all
manufactured goods. These master tools of industry magnify the effort of
individual workers and give an industrial nation the power to turn raw materials
into the affordable, quality goods essential to todays society.
Thus manufacturing process really represents adding value to a raw material and
creation of wealth.
Replenish
Sales
fluctuations

Output

Manufacturing
Facility Add
Value

Raw materials cost and

availability
Business
environment

Input

Social Pressure

Manufacturing
System
comprising of
manufacturing
processes

Production rate,
quality and
delivery
Profit
Reputation

Resources and
plans

Wealth

Manufacturing
Process is the key
to wealth
generation

Casting Processes

These are the only processes

where liquid metal in used.
Casting is the oldest known
manufacturing process.
It requires preparation of a cavity
usually in a refractory material to
resemble closely to the object to
be realized.
Molten metal is poured into this
refractory mould cavity and is
allowed to solidify.
The object after solidification is
removed from the mould.

Equilibrium Phase Diagrams

A convenient way of describing the phase transformations is a

diagram where the phases at different combinations of temperatures
and compositions are indicated.
Such a diagram is called an equilibrium phase diagram. The word
equilibrium is indicative of the fact that at every temperature sufficient
time is provided at every temperature to complete all diffusion
processes.
The diagram in the left shows a
phase diagram of Ni-Cu alloy which
forms a solid solution without any
restriction on % composition.

The diagram has been

obtained by study of the
cooling curves for various
composition of the alloys.

Forming Processes

These are solid state manufacturing processes involving minimum

amount of material wastage and faster production.
Metal is heated to a temperature which is slightly below the
solidus temperature and then a large force is applied such that the
material flows and take the desired shape.
The desired shape is controlled by means of certain tools called
dies which may be completely or partially closed during
manufacture.
These processes are normally used for large scale production
rates.

Extrusion
Drop forging

Rolling Process
Wire Drawing

Fabrication processes
These are secondary manufacturing processes where the starting raw
materials are processed by any of the previous methods.
It essentially involves joining pieces either temporarily or permanently so that
they would perform the necessary function.
The joining can be achieved by both heat and pressure and / or a joining
material.
Gas Welding
Resistance Welding

Arc Welding

Material Removal Processes

These are also secondary manufacturing processes where the additional

unwanted material is removed in the form of chips from the blank
material by a harder tool so that a final desired shape can be obtained.
Material removal is the most expensive manufacturing process because
more energy is consumed, and also a lot of waste material is generated
in the process.

Turning

Milling

Shaping

Grinding

Drilling
Sawing

History of Machining
Mankind used bones, sticks and
stones as hand tools since the
earliest times

The most ancient Paleolithic stone tool

industry the Oldowan was developed by
the earliest members of the genus Homo
such as Homo habilis around 2.6 million
years ago. and contained tools such as
choppers, burins and awls.

During the Upper Paleolithic further

technological advances were made such
as the invention of Nets, bolas, the spear
thrower the bow and arrow.

History of Machining
Hand held tools from Bronze Age
developed around 1 million years back.
Upto almost the seventeenth century all
tools were either hand operated or done
so by other very elementary methods.
Introduction of water, steam and later
electricity as useful sources of energy
led to the concept of power driven
machine tools.

Ceremonial giant dirk of the

Plougrescant-Ommerschans type,
Plougrescant, France, 1500-1300BC.

Bronze Age weaponry

and ornaments

John Wilkinson in 1774 first constructed a precision

machine for boring engine cylinders, powered by steam.

History of Machining

23 years later, Henry Maudslay made a further advancement in machining

when he devised screw cutting engine lathes.
James Nasmyth invented the second basic machining tool for shaping and
planing.
First Universal Milling machine was built by J.R. Brown in
1862.
In the late nineteenth century, the grinding machine was
introduced. An advanced form of this process is the lapping
process used to produce a high quality surface finish and a
very tight tolerance

History of Machining

In the later part of 19th and 20th Centuries the machine tools
became increasingly electrically powered.
The basic machine tools had further refinements; for instance
multiple point cutters for milling machines were introduced.
The whole machining paradigm was however still related to an
operators judgment who by looking at a part and using his skills
would set up an operation sequence and use this for machining
the work piece. Accuracy of such a product would depend
solely on the operator.
The introduction of NC (numerical control) in 1953 lead to
computer numeric control and direct numeric control.
Present capabilities of these tooling systems have enormously
increased due to development in electronic controls and
computers and present capabilities enable complex shapes to be
produced with finishing accuracy close to a + 1 Micron.

History of Machining
In modern machining practices, harder, stronger, and
tougher materials that are more difficult to cut are used.
So, processes should be independent of material properties
of the work piece.
Non conventional machining practices came very handy as
an alternative to the conventional domain which could handle
shape complexity, surface integrity and miniaturization
requirements.
Hybrid machining made use of the combined enhanced
advantages of two or more participating processes.
Micromachining had emerged because of this change of
capabilities.
Recent applications of micromachining include silicon/
glass micromachining, excimer lasers and
photolithography.

History of Machining
Machines such as precision grinders may be capable of
producing an accuracy level of + 1 microns that can be
measured using laser instruments and optical fibers.
Future trends in micromachining include laser and electron
beam lithography and super high precision grinding,
lapping and polishing machines. For measurements high
precision laser beam based scanners are used for measuring
surface finish etc.
Nano-machining is a very recent trend in these processes
wherein atoms and molecules can be removed instead of
chips in conventional machines.
Nano-machining was introduced by Tanigushi to cover the
miniaturization of components and tolerances in the range
from submicron level to that of an individual atom or
molecule between 100nm and 0.1 nm.

Abrasive Machining
Categories
The Metal abrasion action is adopted during
grinding, honing and super finishing processes
that employ either a solid grinding wheel or
sticks in the form of bonded abrasive.

Furthermore in lapping, polishing, and buffing,

loose abrasives are used as tools in a liquid
medium.

Machining Accuracies
100 -1 microns

1 -0.01 microns

Micro-turning and Micro-Milling M/C

0.1 -0.001 microns

Classification of all Material

Removal Processes

Area of
interest

Non Traditional Machining

Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials
using tools that are harder than the materials themselves.
New and novel materials because of their greatly improved
chemical, mechanical and thermal properties are sometimes
impossible to machine using traditional machining processes.
Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in
machining hard materials like ceramics and composites or
machining under very tight tolerances as in micromachined
components.
New processes and methods play a considerable role in
machining for aircraft manufacture, automobile industry, tool
and die industry mold making etc.
They are classified under the domain of non traditional
processes.

Classification of Non Traditional

Machining

Single action non traditional Machining processes:

For these processes only one machining action is used for material removal. These
can be classified according to the source of energy used to generate such a
machining action: mechanical, thermal, chemical and electrochemical.

Mechanical Machining

Ultrasonic Machining (USM) and Waterjet Machining (WJM) are

typical examples of single action, mechanical non traditional
machining processes.
The machining medium is solid grains suspended in an abrasive
slurry in the former, while a fluid is employed in the WJM process.
The introduction of abrasives to the fluid jet enhances the
machining efficiency and is known as abrasive water jet
machining. Similar case happens when ice particles are introduced
as in Ice Jet Machining.

Thermal Machining

Thermal machining removes the

machining allowance by melting or
vaporizing the work piece material.
Many secondary phenomena occur during
machining such as microcracking,
formation of heat affected zones, striations
etc.
The source of heat could be plasma as
during EDM and PBM or photons as during
LBM, electrons in EBM, ions in IBM etc.

Chemical and
Electrochemical Machining

Chemical milling and

photochemical machining
or photochemical blanking
all use a chemical
dissolution action to
remove the machining
allowance through ions in
an etchant.
Electrochemical machining
uses the electrochemical
dissolution phase to remove
the machining allowance
using ion transfer in an
electrolytic cell.

Introduction to Abrasive Jet

Machining (AJM)
In AJM, the material removal takes
place due to impingement of the fine
abrasive particles.
The abrasive particles are typically of
0.025mm diameter and the air
discharges at a pressure of several
atmosphere.

Mechanics of AJM
Abrasive particle impinges on the
work surface at a high velocity and
this impact causes a tiny brittle
fracture and the following air or gas
carries away the dislodged small
work piece particle.

Basics of the USM process

The basic USM process involves a tool ( made of a ductile

and tough material) vibrating with a very high frequency
and a continuous flow of an abrasive slurry in the small gap
between the tool and the work piece.
The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.
The impact of the hard abrasive grains fractures the hard
and brittle work surface, resulting in the removal of the
work material in the form of small wear particles.
The tool material being tough and ductile wears out at a
much slower rate.

Electrochemical Machining
(ECM)
Electrochemical machining is one of the most unconventional
machining processes.
The process is actually the reverse of electroplating with some
modifications.
It is based on the principle of electrolysis.
In a metal, electricity is conducted by free electrons but in a
solution the conduction of electricity is achieved through the
movement of ions.
Thus the flow of current through an electrolyte is always
accompanied by the movement of matter.
In the ECM process the work-piece is connected to a positive
electrode and the tool to the negative terminal for metal removal.
The figure below shows a suitable work-piece and a suitably
shaped tool, the gap between the tool and the work being full of a
suitable electrolyte.

Electrochemical Machining
With ECM the rate of metal
removal is independent of
the work-piece hardness.
ECM becomes
advantageous when either
the work material possesses
a very low machinability or
the shape to be machined is
complex.

Unlike most other conventional and unconventional processes, here there is

practically no tool wear.
Though it appears that, since machining is done electrochemically, the tool
experiences no force, the fact is that the tool and work is subjected to large forces
exerted by the high pressure fluid in the gap.

Electric Discharge
Machining
EDM is the process
of material removal by a

controlled erosion through a series of electric sparks.

It was developed in USSR around 1943.
The basic process is illustrated below.
When a discharge takes place between two points of
the anode and cathode the intense heat generated
near the zone melts and evaporates the materials in
the sparking zone.
For improving the effectiveness the work-piece and
the tool are submerged in a dielectric fluid. (Mineral
oils or hydrocarbons)
Experiments
indicate
that in case both
electrodes are of the
same material there is
a prominently more
erosion of the electrode
connected to the

Schematic view of the e-beam

machine
The figure below shows the basic schematic view of the electron beam
machine.
The electrons are emitted from the cathode (a hot tungsten filament),
the beam is shaped by the grid cup, and the electrons are accelerated
due to a large potential difference between the cathode and the anode.
The beam is focussed with the help of the electromagnetic lenses.
The deflecting coils are used to control the beam movement in any
required manner.
In case of drilling holes the hole diameter depends on the beam
When the diameter of the
diameter and the energy density.
required hole is larger than
the beam diameter, the
beam is deflected in a
circular path with proper
radius.
Most holes drilled with ebeam are characterized by a
small crater on the beam
incident side of the work.

Introduction to MEMS fabrication

NEMS/ MEMS silicon fabrication
Formation of structures that could be used to
form sensors and actuators.
Processing of electrical or non electrical
signals.
Conventional and new semiconductor
manufacturing techniques are used.
Etching, Deposition, Photolithography,
Oxidation, Epitaxy etc.
Deep RIE, Thick plating etc.
Bulk and surface micromachining.

Topics Covered
Non-traditional Machining processes. (detailed
analysis based AJM, USM, ECM, EDM, LBM, PAM,
MRAFF, EDD, ECD, MEMS processes, RP
processes, rapid tooling techniques) [10Lectures]
Traditional Machining processes.(detailed
analysis on turning, milling, drilling, shaping ad
planning processes, orthogonal and oblique
cutting).[06-Lectures]
Introduction to Metrology.(Limits, fits, tolerances,
Automated inspection and CMM), [01-Lecture]

Course Requirements
(1) 35% of total grade on Mid Semester
(2) 35% of total grade on Final
Examination
(3) 30% of total grade on Experiments.
(The rationale of the distribution of 30% is
the following: 5% will be on report making,
5% will be based on feedback of
supervisorial support, 20% will be done on
the basis of a lab quiz that will be taken
towards the end of the semester at a
mutually convenient date.)