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Lifespan Psychology
Kerri Anne Freckleton MSc. BSc.
January 2015

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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Developmental psychology, also known ashuman

development, is thescientificstudy of systematic
psychological changes that occur inhumanbeings over
the course of their life span. Originally concerned
withinfants andchildren, the field has expanded to
includeadolescence,adult development,aging, and
the entire life span.

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LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

Lifespan Development is the field of study that

determines patterns of growth, change and stability in
behaviour that occur throughout the entire lifespan. It
deals with the study of individual development, from
conception to old age.

The lifespan perspective began to emerge as a distinct

discipline in the 1960s and 1970s and continues to gain
in popularity

Lifespan psychology is a scientific developmental

approach that focuses on human development

Scientists of Lifespan Development know that

development is neither purely hereditary or as a result
of the environment (nature & nurture)

Development continues throughout the lifespan (pre

birth till death)

According to the lifespan perspective:

Developmental change occurs throughout the lifespan

Adulthood is seen as an important time of growth and

change, not the end point of development as it is in the
traditional view

No age period dominates development; changes in

adulthood are as important as those in childhood

Adulthood and aging are not portrayed as a period of

decline; the changes that occur as we age may also be
positive

Development is therefore multidirectional, meaning

that as some capacities or behaviours decrease, others
expand

Development includes both gain and loss throughout

the lifespan and these may even occur together

Development is multidimensional, that is, it consists of

biological, social, emotional and cognitive changes,
each of which are interrelated

The study of development should be seen as

multidisciplinary; neuroscientists, psychologists,
sociologists and medical researchers have different but
complimentary perspectives on age related change

This the social and cultural context of development is

seen as highly relevant to developmental change

The plasticity of human development the idea that we

retain capacity for change in response to
environmental factors right across the lifespan is
emphasized.

This field examines change across a broad range of

topics includingmotor skills and other psychophysiological processes; cognitive development
involving areas such asproblem solving.moral
understanding, and conceptual
understanding;language acquisition; social,
personality, and emotional development; and selfconcept andidentity formation.

There are many approaches to marriage and family

counseling, substance abuse treatment, career
counseling and several other populations, purposes
and settings that are based on Developmental
Psychology. It's a psychology rich in the kinds of
research possibilities available too, and perhaps more
than any other psychology, influences policy in
education, social and other sectors as well.
Developmental Psychology is often referenced in school
and educational, organizational, personality, biological
and other psychologies too.

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THE LIFESPAN IS DIVIDED INTO:

Toddlerhood & Infancy Ages Birth 2 yrs.

Early Childhood Ages 2 6 yrs.

Middle Childhood Ages 7 9 yrs.

Late Childhood Ages 10 12 yrs.

Early Adolescence Ages 13 15 yrs.

Late Adolescence Ages 16 19 yrs.

Early Adulthood Ages 20 40 yrs.

Middle Adulthood Ages 40 65 yrs.

Late Adulthood Ages 65+

THE THREE MAIN DOMAINS OF

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

Biological Domain:bodily changes, maturation, and

growth

Cognitive Domain:mental processes of knowing,

which include imagining, perceiving, reasoning, and
problem solving

Psychosocial Domain:emotions, personality, and

social interactions and expectations

INFANCY & TODDLERHOOD

(BIRTH AGE 2)

Biological

Body doubles in height and quadruples in weight

Experiences help to fine tune the brains responses to

stimulation

Motor skills progress from simple reflexes to

coordinated motor abilities, such as grasping and
walking

Sensory and perceptual abilities develop rapidly

Cognitive
Basic

structure of language learned

through baby talk with adults

First

communication emerges
through crying, then cooing and
babbling

Language

skills progress from

speaking a few words by age 1, to
constructing sentences by age 2

Awareness of world progresses through immediate

sensorimotor experiences to mental representations of
events

Thinking includes concept of object permanence:

objects still exist when out of sight or awareness

Ability to grasp conceptual categories begins; by age 2

numerous definite concepts develop

Psychosocial
Emotional

responses change from basic

reactions to more complex, selfconscious responses

Independent

behaviors increase with

parental encouragement around feeding,
dressing, and toilet training

Parents

and infants respond to each

other by synchronizing their behavior

Development of secure attachment sets stage for

child's increasingly independent exploration

Ability to relate to playmates emerges by end of period

Early personality traits, such as introversion and

extroversion, develop

EARLY CHILDHOOD
(AGES 2-6)

Biological

Brain attains 90% of its adult weight by age 5,

developing faster than any other body part

Physical strength increases and body proportions

become more adult-like

Athletic skills, such as running, jumping, and hopping,

dramatically improve

Fine motors skills, such as writing and drawing, develop

slowly

Gender differences in motor skills begin to emerge

Cognitive

Use of mental representations and symbols, such as

words, begins

Ideas about the world continue to be somewhat illogical

Social interactions with parents and playmates teach

about the world

Language abilities develop rapidly, resulting, on

average, in a 14,000-word vocabulary and extensive
grammatical knowledge by age 6

Ability to adjust communication to audience begins

Metacognition, the ability to think about thought, forms

Psychosocial

Play alone or with others becomes increasingly

complex and imaginative

Increased energy fosters ability to initiate new

activities, especially if child receives praise for actions

First awareness of gender roles emerge

Desire for independence and control over environment

increases, making parents' supervisory role more
challenging

Parenting style influences child's psychosocial

development

Socialization in school encourages thinking about world

outside the home

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
(AGES 7-9)

Biological

Brain growth slows

Physical growth slows, but slight height spurts occur

Expansion of heart and lung capacities supports more

physical endurance

Athletic and fine motor skills become more refined

Cognitive

Ability to understand logical principle develops

Memory capacity and ability to use mnemonics

expands

Metacognition, the ability to think about thought,

enables organization of own learning

Use of language becomes more analytical

Proficiency in more than one language code may begin,

sometimes resulting in bilingualism

Psychosocial

Peer group becomes more significant as dependence

shifts to friends for help, loyalty, and sharing of mutual
interests

Awareness of and involvement in outside world

increases awareness of family, economic, and political
conditions

Motivational systems build around achievement,

competence, and affiliation

Coping strategies develop for problem solving and

stress tolerance

Interpersonal strategies develop to aid in

understanding others' behavior

LATE CHILDHOOD
(AGES 10 12)

Biological

Puberty begins with rising hormone levels

Girls' growth spurt begins with gains in height, weight,

and musculature

Gender specific physical changes appear within first

year: enlargement of breasts in girls and testes in boys

In physical maturation, boys lag, on average, 2 years

behind girls

Variations in onset of puberty impact personality

development

Cognitive

Logical thought progresses to abstract thinking

Planning skills and memory strategies improve

Long-term knowledge base grows

Language skills expand to include synonyms,

categories, double meanings, metaphors, humor, and
complex grammatical structure

Psychosocial
Changes

in physique, sexuality,
cognitive functioning, and society's
treatment may challenge sense of
self

Appreciation

of connection between
moral rules and social conventions
strengthens

Peer

groups often divide into cliques

Awareness of gender stereotypes continues to increase

Issues increase around autonomy, sibling rivalry, and

separation from family

EARLY ADOLOSCENCE
(AGES 13 15)

Biological

Body continues to grow in height and weight

Girls growth spurt peaks, while boys typically begin it

Motor performance gradually increases, but often

levels off for girls

Girls usually start to menstruate and boys to ejaculate

Cognitive

Formal operational reasoning, the capacity for abstract,

scientific thought, emerges

Thinking becomes more self-conscious, idealistic, and

critical

Metacognition and self-regulation further develop

Vocabulary expands to include abstract words

Understanding and grasp of complex grammar

continues to improve

Ability to grasp irony and sarcasm develops

Psychosocial

Issues of identity emerge, potentially leading to crisis in

sense of self

Sexual orientation begins to emerge

Psychological disorders and sociocultural-adaptational

disorders may emerge (Adjustment Disorders)

Strives for autonomy in relation to family continues to

increase, and parent-child conflicts more likely to occur

Friendships have greater emphasis on intimacy and

loyalty

Conformity to peer pressure increases

LATE ADOLESCENCE
(AGES 16 19)

Biological

Boys' growth spurt peaks, and growth is mostly

complete by end of this period

Boys develop deeper voices and patterns of facial hair,

and typically grow taller than their female peers

Girls tend to grow wider in the hips, and breast

development continues for several years

Girls' motor performance peaks, while boys' continues

to improve

Cognitive

Reasoning through problems in symbolic terms and

through use of formal logic improves

Fluid intelligence, the ability to cope with new problems

and situations, is reached by the end of this period

Ability to understand and integrate rules into sense of

self becomes basis for character development

Psychosocial

Development of identity continues in relation to adult

world

First dating begins process of developing and

maintaining intimate relationships

Cliques decline in importance

Identity achievement greatly influenced by personal

factors, including family and peer relationships with
family and peers, and economic and political
circumstances

Increased assertiveness and lack of self-discipline often

create conflicts with parents

Sexual orientation continues to develop

Introduction begins to the world of work and career

planning

EARLY ADULTHOOD
(AGES 20 40)

Biological

Physical functioning increases through the 20's and

peaks at about age 30, but can be maintained through
exercise

Body shape changes, with gradual increases in weight

and body fat and decreases in lean muscle mass

Efficiency of many organ systems begins to diminish at

the rate of about 1% a year

Sexual responsiveness remains high throughout this

period, with some slowing in men

Physical appearance changes; gray hair and wrinkles

develop toward end of this period

Cognitive

Thinking may become practical and dialectical to adapt

to the inconsistencies and complexities in daily
experiences

Short-term memory peaks

Wisdom and expertise begin to develop

Vocabulary and knowledge continue to grow through

work interactions and everyday problem-solving

Psychosocial

Issues of identity and intimacy peak by age 30

Need for affiliation filled by friends and often a

marriage/partner

Friendships become particularly important for people

who are single

Need for achievement often met through satisfactory

work consistent with personality and abilities

Personality traits most likely to change up to age 30,

with additional maturation continuing into the 40's

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
(AGES 40 65)

Biological

Gradual changes continue in appearance of skin, hair,

and body shape

Gradual changes occur in hearing and vision, including

presbyopia, the inability to focus on near objects

Menopause begins in women

Health and potential onset of disease affected by

preventive behaviors, many of which vary by social
class

Cognitive

Fluid intelligence declines while crystallized intelligence

remains steady or increases

Intellectual abilities dependent on speed and novelty

decrease, while abilities involving knowledge about the
world and vocabulary increase

Reaction time and mental processing speed slow

Short and long-term memory remain relatively stable

Cognitive abilities related to experience and

intelligence flourish, leading to further formation of
expertise

Maintenance of cognitive skills as well as opportunities

for intellectual growth impacted by social class

Psychosocial

Mid-life crisis occurs in a small minority of cases,

because most men and women experience gradual
transitions in sense of self and in relationship with the
world

Personality traits tend to remain stable

Friendship and marriage/partnership continue as

primary sources of affiliation

Marital satisfaction often rises as children move away

from home

Maintenance phase in career may allow for greatest

productivity at work, may also cause burn-out

Experiences of facing age discrimination more likely

LATE ADULTHOOD
(AGES 65 ONWARD)

Biological

Brain becomes physically smaller and functions more

slowly

Gradual changes continue in appearance, along with

weakening of the body sense organs and major body
systems

Losses continue in visual and hearing abilities

Decreases in immune system and overall muscle

strength put older adults at risk of chronic and acute
illness

Short-term memory may decline, but active exercise of

mental abilities helps to maintain functioning

Age-related changes impact sexual functioning, but not

pleasure

Cognitive

Abilities to receive information, store it in memory, and

organize and interpret it decline

Some short-term memory abilities declined, but

methods can help compensate for memory loss and
slower thinking

Aesthetic, philosophical, or spiritual interests emerge or

intensify

Language abilities based on memory and processing

speed decline, but overall vocabulary continues to grow

Driving-related abilities dependent on informationprocessing speed decrease, while skills based on

experience increase

Wisdom, experience-based problem solving, and

semantic knowledge increase

Psychosocial

Retirement experience shaped by social class and

gender factors, including income, health, and amount
of previous planning

Abilities to cope with stress, reduce negative emotions,

and manage personal relationships improve broader
perspective on life

Subjective sense of well-being tends to be higher than

at all previous periods

Satisfaction with life largely dependent on family

involvement

Bereavement for spouse, friends, and families stressful,

but most people are able to integrate a loss into their
lives within one year after it happens

End-of-life care that incorporates pain management

and psychological support greatly impacts well-being

Although some theories are more interconnected than

others, while others are opposing, most psychologists
today, take their approach from what they find relevant
in many different theories. There are not many die
hard psychologists who only subscribe to one theory.
(Relevance refers to the aspects of the theory and the
situations they are applied to.)

EXTERNAL FACTORS THAT IMPACT

DEVELOPMENT

CULTURE

Children in different cultures tend to develop at slightly

different rates. 90% of babies in the US will walk by the
age of 15months, but most babies will be able to walk
at the age of 10 months in Uganda. However, even
blind children will begin to walk nearly the same time
as their peers in their culture (maturation process)

The thought of young children handling knives makes

many American parents shudder, yet toddlers in parts
of Africa and here in Jamaica safely use machetes.
Similarly, infants in middle-class communities in the
United States are often expected to sleep alone by the
time they're only a few months old, while Mayan
children typically share their mother's bed through
their toddler years.

Striking differences in child-rearing practices reflect the

diverse range of what is considered developmentally
appropriate for children around the world, depending
on their cultural circumstances.

"All children grow as members of cultural

communities," said Barbara Rogoff, a UCSC professor of
psychology and author of the new bookThe Cultural
Nature of Human Development, an expert on learning
and development who holds the UC Santa Cruz
Foundation Chair in Psychology. "So understanding how
childhood is supported, constrained, and constructed in
any community is part of understanding child
development."

PARENTING

Many studies have shown that authoritative parents

have children who are adapted and happy and
eventually become adults who are well adjusted and
happy. Children with authoritative parents had the
highest self esteem, self reliance, and social
competence.

Those with a somewhat controlled upbringing are more

motivated and self confident. Children with overly
permissive parents tend to exhibit characteristics of
helplessness, are more incompetent and have
difficulties in dealing with frustration and limits.

CLASS

Children in what is percieved as uptown Jamaican

families are somewhat less independent than those in
the innercity who have to fend for themselves.

Retirement is different for persons in the upper class

than those in the lower class situations. (Eg. Mr.
Brown will move right into farming his little plot of land.
Mr. Riley, doesnt get used to no longer being CEO, with
all the perks very quickly.)

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LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT AND
CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGY

Counseling psychology/consulting psychology is a

general practice and health service provider specialty
in professional psychology. It focuses on personal and
interpersonal functioning across the life span and on
emotional, social, vocational, educational, healthrelated, developmental and organizational concerns.

Counseling psychology centers on typical or normal

developmental issues as well as atypical or disordered
development as it applies to human experience from
individual, family, group, systems, and organizational
perspectives. Counseling/consulting psychologists help
people with physical, emotional, and mental disorders
improve well-being, alleviate distress and
maladjustment, and resolve crises. In addition,
practitioners in this professional specialty provide
assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of
psychopathology.

If we take note of some aspects of the theories

presented to us on Human development, we will realise
that some of the issues which we face in
consulting/counselling are as a result of problems
somewhere along the development of the individuals
we encounter.

The goal of the consulting psychologist is to assess the

climate of the firm/organization/environment and the
individuals who are a part of it, and intervene by
providing the client, the consultee and the
organization/environment in general with the best-fit
solution for whatever issues are being faced .

Focus on providing help to in pinpointing difficulties and

build new skills (Development of skills via training
and/or supervision procedures). Helping the
firm/organization to best deal with developmental
roadblocks (age or gender) within the workplace,
addressing the Issues that may arise as a result.

For example, In the case of the female dominated

workplace, and how best both males and females can
co-exist in this environment without a negative impact
while improving performance and enhancing employee
relations

Understanding lifespan development, enables

consulting psychologists to deal with both intrapersonal
and interpersonal issues in communities/organizations.
Whether ranging from adjustment problems in
individuals, or inappropriate sexual behaviours (from
either men or women), to inability to deal with
retirement.

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GLOBALIZATION

Technological advances and the Global marketplace

have made many office spaces smaller but many
corporations larger. Globalization,as a concept,
refers both to the "shrinking" of the world and the
increased consciousness of the world as a whole. It is a
term used to describe the changes in societies and the
world economy that are the result of dramatically
increased cross-border trade, investment, and cultural
exchange, however globalization processes are
strongly affected by the values and motivation of the
people involved in the process

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CHANGES IN THE
ORGANIZATION
1) Adapting

to it

2)Planning for it

) Changes

Occurring in:

3) Adjustment

1) Organization

with respect to: a) Functions; b) Structure; c)

Work - load; d) Number and types of jobs that are to be
staffed within the organization.

) 2)

Terms of qualifications, capacities, attitudes and

behaviour of the personnel who are available to staff these
positions.

Changes in:
Placement of employees (by means of):
a)

Transfers

b)

Promotions

c)

Demotions

d)

Lay offs

e)

Early Retirement

It is no longer necessary to have 20 people in one

department, when an international company owns a
business. Look at Air Jamaica. Caribbean Airways didnt
need more flight attendants of pilots or even ground
crew. They hired some but not all back. What was the
response of those who were a part of the company.
Were they developmentally prepared to move on?

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ADAPTABILITY

Persons need to understand that change is inevitable

and learn the tools necessary to adapt to any work
environment.

They are not always going to be surrounded by

familiarity and in development, adapatability is key.

The workplace should no longer be considered a

lifelong place of employment.

In the past persons had jobs and job expectations

which indicated that they would have been employed
and experience most of their developmental milestones
in the same place. This is no more.

There are people graduating from universities every

year, preparing themselves for the world of work. They
must be employed somewhere. Therefore there is a
cycle within organizations that needs to be completed.

Some persons have a problems with this idea. They are

of the mind that Job security is still the name of the
game.

An integral part of development is preparation for any

environmental, emotional, psychological, even social
change that may arise.

Preparation in the workplace for new milestones comes

in the form of learning. The 21st Century Workplace is a
continuous learning environment.

Employees need to equip themselves for the changes

that may come.

Therefore companies and employees need to know

about retraining in areas where they may fall short in
order to compete in the global marketplace.

Employees need to personally be encouraged to

prepare themselves and make themselves marketable,
so that in any situation they will retain a sense of
assuredness and confidence.

THE MBAers VERSUS THE OLD

TIMERS

The older employees sometimes find themselves

holding on to their positions and their knowledge out of
fear.

The presence of these two groups of individuals in the

organization, often brings up the question of Is
qualification or experience more important in getting a
job done?

Most would agree that both are important. However,

the MBAers need to realize the wealth of knowledge
they can gain in order to progress in the organization
from the older employees.

The older employees need to ensure they are training

the new employees in preparation for them moving into
new positions.

It is clear that when we all get to a certain stage (and

some even before), our bodies need more and more
rest, as do our minds.

Burnout, increased stress levels and job related

health challenges will arise in any organization whose
employees are not meeting their developmental
milestones correctly.

Whether it be that they are fixated or that they are

jumping past them, either way is just as detrimental to
the individual and the organization.

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HOLISTIC APPROACH

As consulting psychologists it is necessary to take a

holistic approach, and borrow the applicable ideas from
the psychodynamic, humanistic and behaviourist
schools, in order to address all the developmental
issues, which may be faced in the field.

As we know all human beings are not all the same, and
we develop at different rates.

In order to address and issue we may be required to

deal with in an unbiased, it is necessary to be equipped
to do so from whatever theoretical standpoint would
best suit the individual, the organization and the
general work environment.

THANK YOU!