ChapterFifteen:

RadioWavePropagation

Introduction
Radiowavesareoneformofelectromagneticradiation
Electromagneticradiationhasadualnature:
Insomecases,itbehavesaswaves
Inothercases,itbehavesasparticles(photons)

Forradiofrequenciesthewavemodelisgenerallymore
appropriate
Electromagneticwavescanbegeneratedbymanymeans,
butalltheminvolvethemovementofelectricalcharges

ElectromagneticSpectrum

ElectromagneticWaves
Electromagnetic
transmissionsmoveinspace
asTransversewaves
Wavesarecharacterizedby
frequencyandwavelength:

v f

ElectricandMagneticFields
Anelectromagneticwavepropagatingthrough
spaceconsistsofelectricandmagneticfields,
perpendicularbothtoeachotherandtothe
directionoftravelofthewave
Therelationshipbetweenelectricandmagnetic
fieldintensitiesisanalogoustotherelation
betweenvoltageandcurrentincircuits
Thisrelationshipisexpressedby: Z E
H

PowerDensity
Powerdensityinspaceistheamountofpower
thatflowsthrougheachsquaremeterofasurface
perpendiculartothedirectionoftravel
2

E
PD
Z

PlaneandSphericalWaves
Thesimplestsourceofelectromagneticwaves
wouldbeapointinspace,withwavesradiating
equallyinalldirections.Thisiscalledan
isotropicradiator
Awavefrontthathasasurfaceonwhichallthe
wavesarethesamephasewouldbeasphere

CircularPolarization
Thepolarizationofaplanewaveissimplythedirectionofitselectric
fieldvector
Thewavecanrotateineitherdirectionitiscalledrighthandedifit
rotatesclockwise

FreeSpacePropagation
Radiowavespropagatethroughfreespaceina
straightlinewithavelocityofthespeedoflight
(300,000,000m/s)
Thereisnolossofenergyinfreespace,butthere
isattenuationduetothespreadingofthewaves

AttenuationofFreeSpace
Anisotropicradiatorwouldproducesphericalwaves
Thepowerdensityofanisotropicradiatorissimply
bethetotalpowerdividedbythesurfaceareaofthe
sphere,accordingtothesquarelaw:
Pt
PD
4 r 2

TransmittingAntennaGain
Inpracticalcommunicationsystems,itisimportanttoknow
thesignalstrengthatthereceiverinput
Itdependsonthetransmitterpowerandthedistancefromthe
transmittertothereceiver,butalsouponthetransmittingand
receivingantennas
Twoimportantantennacharacteristicsare:
Gainforthetransmittingantenna
Effectiveareaforthereceivingantenna

Antennasaresaidtohavegaininthosedirectionsinwhich
themostpowerisradiated

ReceivingAntennaGain
Areceivingantennaabsorbssomeoftheenergy
fromradiowavesthatpassit
Alargerantennareceivesmorepowerthana
smallerantenna(inrelationtosurfacearea)
Receivingantennasareconsideredtohavegain
justastransmittingantennasdo
Thepowerextractedfromareceivingantennaisa
functionofitsphysicalsizeanditsgain

PathLoss
Freespaceattenuationistheratioofreceived
powertotransmittedpower
Thedecibelgainbetweentransmitterandreceiver
isnegative(loss)andthelossfoundthiswayis
calledfreespacelossorpathloss

Reflection,Refraction,andDiffraction
Thesethreepropertiesaresharedbylightand
radiowaves
Forbothreflectionandrefraction,itisassumed
thatthesurfacesinvolvedaremuchlargerthanthe
wavelength;ifnot,diffractionwilloccur

Reflection
Reflectionofwavesfromasmoothsurface(specular
reflection)resultsintheangleofreflectionbeingequaltothe
angleofincidence

OtherTypesofReflection

Cornerreflector

Parabolicreflector

DiffuseReflection

Refraction
Atransitionfromone
mediumtoanotherresults
inthebendingofradio
waves,justasitdoeswith
light
SnellsLawgovernsthe
behaviorof
electromagneticwaves
beingrefracted:
n1 sin1 n2 sin 2

Diffraction
Asaresultofdiffraction,
electromagneticwavescan
appeartogoaround
corners
Diffractionismore
apparentwhentheobject
hassharpedges,thatis
whenthedimensionsare
smallincomparisontothe
wavelength

GroundWavePropagation
Mostofthetime,radiowavesarenotquiteinfree
space
Terrestrialpropagationmodesinclude:

Lineofsightpropagation
Spacewavepropagation
Groundwaves
Skywaves

IonosphericPropagation
Longrangecommunicationinthehighfrequency
bandispossiblebecauseofrefractioninaregion
oftheupperatmospherecalledtheionosphere
Theionosphereisdividedintothreeregions
knownastheD,E,andFlayers
Ionizationisdifferentatdifferentheightsabove
theearthandisaffectedbytimeofdayandsolar
activity

LineofSightPropagation
SignalsintheVHFandhigherrangearenotusuallyreturnedtoearth
bytheionosphere
Mostterrestrialcommunicationatthesefrequenciesusesdirect
radiationfromthetransmittertothereceiver
Thistypeofpropagationisreferredtoasspacewave,lineofsight,or
troposphericpropagation

Propagationina
Mobile/PortableEnvironment
Multipathpropagationcreatesinterferencefor
communicationsystems
Mobileenvironmentsareoftensoclutteredthat
thesquarelawattenuationoffreespacedoesnot
apply(forexample,inacitywithmanybuildings)

RepeatersandCellularSystems
Becausemobilesystemshaverelativelysmallantenna
heights,systemsmustbeinplacetoimprovesignalstrength
andreceptioncapabilities
Mobileunitsmakeuseofrepeatersthatarefullduplexand
useresonantcavitiescalledaduplexer
Cellularsystemsdonotusethehorizonasthelimitof
coverage
Antennasmaystillbemountedhigh,buttherangeis
deliberatelylimitedbyusingaslowatransmitterpowerasis
possible

ControlofFadinginMobileSystems
Fadingisaproblemwithmobilesystemsand
increasingpowerandtypicalfrequencydiversity
arenotworkablesolutionstothisproblem
Spreadspectrumsystemscancorrectfading
throughalternativefrequencydiversitysystems
suchasCDMA
Usingarakereceiver,aCDMAsystemcan
receiveseveraldatastreamsatonce

OtherPropagationModes
TroposphericScattermakesuseofthescattering
ofradiowavesinthetropospheretopropagate
signalsinthe250MHz5GHzrange

Ducting
Undercertainconditions,especiallyoverwater,a
superrefractivelayercanforminthetroposphereand
returnsignalstoearth
Thesignalscanthenpropagateoverlongdistances
byalternatelyreflectingfromtheearthandrefracting
fromthesuperrefractivelayer
Arelatedconditioninvolvesathintroposphericlayer
withahighrefractiveindex,sothataductforms

ExamplesofDucting

MeteorTrailPropagation
Meteorsareconstantlyenteringtheearthsatmosphere
andbeingdestroyed
Themeteorsthatentertheatmosphereleavebehindan
ionizedtrailthatcanbeusedforcommunication.Itis
notsuitableforvoicecommunication