TURBO MACHINES

Steam and Gas Turbines

Eng. R. L. Nkumbwa MSc, REng.

Copperbelt University, ST
August, 2010

Intended Contents
Gas

Turbine

The Power Cycle for a Jet Engine

Joule

Steam

(UK) or Brayton (US) Cycle

Turbine

Rankine or Vapor Cycle

Combined

Cycles
Gas Turbine Engine Pressure Ratio
2

Classical Thermodynamics is the only

physical theory of universal content which
. within the framework of its basic
notions, will never be toppled.

Albert Einstein
3

Global Energy Crisis!!

Do we have an Energy, Enthalpy or an Entropy Crisis?

Freeman

Dyson explains Entropy as a "measure

of disorder in a physical system".
Another useful thermodynamic quantity in the
context of energy conversion is Enthalpy, which
is used to quantify the thermal energy content of
hot steam.
The energy available from a thermal power
system depends on the temperature and
pressure of the hot steam entering the turbine.

Gas Turbines
So,

what are Gas Turbines?

Popularly called the GT
Copperbelt Energy Corporation (CEC) has
Rolls-Royce Gas Turbines at Luano Station
along Chingola Road.

Gas Turbine Principle

A gas

turbine is a rotary machine, similar in

principle to a steam turbine.
In an open cycle gas turbine working on Joule
cycle, the air is compressed in a rotary
compressor and passed into a combustion
chamber where fuel is burnt, the products of
combustion are then made to impinge over rings
of turbine blades with high velocity and work is
produced.

Sadi Carnot, Reflection On The Motive Power of Heat And On

Machines Fitted To Develop That Power, 1824.

Nature, in providing us with combustibles on all

sides, has given us the power to produce, at all times
and in all places, heat and the impelling power which
is the result of it.

To develop this power, to appropriate it to our uses, is

the objective of heat engines. The study of these
engines is of greatest interest, their importance is
enormous, their use is continually increasing, and
they seem destined to produce a great revolution in
the civilized world.

Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot

(1796-1832) French Army

 Carnot

Animation

http://www.cs.sbcc.net/~physics/flash/heate

ngines/Carnot%20cycle.html

10

 Carnot

Animation

http://www.cs.sbcc.net/~physics/flash/heate

ngines/Carnot%20cycle.html

11

Carnot Animation

http://www.cs.sbcc.net/~physics/flash/heaten

gines/Carnot%20cycle.html

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So, What is a Heat Engine?

13

Real Engines
Heat

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Engines in the real world are constrained by

various factors.
In commercial power plants the work needed to
turn the generator is supplied by a device called
turbine, which has curved blades at the
circumference and the working fluid is air and
water at ambient temperature (in case of
hydroelectric plants) or high temperature
(in steam cycle plants).

Real Engines
Most

commercial power plants use steam or hot

gas supplied by combustion of fuels to propel the
turbine.
Efficiencies of steam cycle plants are low, but the
quantity of working fluid is less.
There are different types of cycles that can be
employed for extracted work from steam and
other working fluids.
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What is Work?
Efficiency

16

depends on the heat input and work

output.
The Work Output can mean different things to
different folks
Work to turn a shaft . electric generator, ship
propulsion, helicopter rotor,
Turboprop engine, Abrams A1A tank, Automotive
propulsion,
Thrust efficiency @ NASA, etc

What Drives this AV-8B Harrier Attack

Fighter Jet?

17

Harrier Fighter Jet

Harrier

Vertical Takeoff
Gulf War / Iraq / Afghanistan
US Marines / UK Royal Air Force / Italy
Spain

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Harrier Fighter Jet

Power

Plant:

One Rolls-Royce Pegasus 105 vectored-thrust

turbofan.

Thrust

= 21,750 lb
Max payload for vertical take off ~9,000 lb
Max payload for short take off ~17,000 lb
Max speed ~ Mach 0.98
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What is the Motive Power?

20

Gas Turbine

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Gas Turbine Characteristics

Relatively

Small
Light Weight
Balanced Operation
No Oil
More Reliable

22

Gas Turbines Timeline

23

1791 John Barber patent but nothing more

1872 -04 Stolze, no result
1882 -03 Aegidius Elling 11-44 hp
1901 -06 Charles Lemale patent, Rateau design
1906-08 Hans Holzwarth Brown Boveri
1936 Noack (Stodola ) at Brown Boveri
1939 Escher -Wyss, closed cycle with He
1939 Ganz-Jendrassik
1930 -39 Frank Whittle patented with Han von Ohain
1936 -39 Hans von Ohain First Flight

Steam Turbine Timeline

1848

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Francis first turbine

1849 James Francis improved Howdturbine
1874 Francis turbine with variable guide vanes
1880s Modern pumps by Massachusetts pump in
USA
1880 Peltons free jet turbine
1905 Fttingers torque converter
1913 Victor Kaplans propeller turbine

Gas Turbine Heat Source

Liquid

petrol

Gas
Coal
Residuals
Gasified

coal

Nuclear
Bio,

25

renewable
All other

Problems Associated with Turbines

Turbine

erosion
Turbine corrosion
Fuel oxidizer
Stochiometric temperature

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Turbine Elementary Components

Compressor
Turbine
Combustor
Heat

exchanger

Gear
Flow

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divider
Flow unifier
Nozzle

Gas Turbine Layouts

Single

shaft
Free load turbine
Two spool
Three spool
Separate units
Variable geometry
Several combustors and heat exchangers
28

Gas Turbine vs. Steam Turbines

Direct

heating
Higher max temp
Cooling possible
Liquid compression
Closed system

29

Liquid

compression
Closed system

Turbine Cycle Improvements

Reduce

compression work
Increase expansion work
Reduce outlet heat loss
Improve thermodynamics
Inter-cooling
Reheat
Heat exchanger
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Gas Turbine Applications

Jet

Engines

Straight jet
Turbofan
Turboprop
Helicopter

Pump

units
Compressor units
Naval or Marine Engines
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Gas Turbine Applications

Power

Peak load
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
Base load CC, CHP

Not

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Generation

for Land transportation

Trucks
Trains

Gas Turbine Operation

Military
Civil

jets 500-5000 h

jets 5000-20000 h

Stationary

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GT >100000 h

Gas Turbine Sizes

0.5
20

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- 10 MW vehicle

40% Simple cycle

- 100 MW mobile unit

60%Combined cycle

Brayton Cycle
The

Brayton cycle models power systems

based on Gas Turbines.
When hot gas is used to drive turbine to
generate work, the energy conversion process is
much simpler because the working fluid (gas) is
directly heated without need for a large boiler as
in case of steam cycle plants.

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36

Brayton Cycle

37

Brayton Closed Cycle Operation

38

Brayton Open Cycle Operation

39

Components and States in a Brayton

Combustion Gas Turbine cycle.

40

Brayton Combustion Gas Turbine cycle

41

Brayton Combustion Gas Turbine cycle

The

Brayton cycle (or Joule cycle) represents the

operation of a gas turbine engine.
The cycle consists of four processes, as shown
in Figure above of an engine:

42

a - b Adiabatic, quasi-static (or reversible)

compression in the inlet and compressor;
b - c Constant pressure fuel combustion (idealized as
constant pressure heat addition);

Brayton Combustion Gas Turbine cycle

43

c - d Adiabatic, quasi-static (or reversible) expansion

in the turbine and exhaust nozzle, with which we take
some work out of the air and use it to drive the
compressor, and take the remaining work out and use
it to accelerate fluid for jet propulsion, or to turn a
generator for electrical power generation;
d - a Cool the air at constant pressure back to its initial
condition.

Brayton Components

44

Temperature Entropy Diagram of Ideal

Brayton Cycle

45

Brayton Cycle
Air

46

is first compressed in a compressor and then

heated in a combustion chamber fired by cleaner
fuel like natural gas.
The working fluid in this case would be a mixture
of air and the combustion products (carbon
dioxide, water vapor and nitrous oxide).
Dirtier fuels like coal cannot be used in this cycle.
As in the case of steam cycle, the hot gas is
directed through a nozzle to drive the gas turbine
blades that turns a generator to produce work or
electricity.

Brayton Cycle
At

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the turbine exit, the gas has to be cooled to a

temperature of around 550 degree Celsius,
which is still hot but not sufficient to efficiently
extract additional work in the turbine.
At most gas turbine plants the exhaust gas is
directly vented into the atmosphere.
Simple gas plants and airplane engines are
common examples of Brayton cycle in an open
cycle arrangement.

Brayton Thermodynamic Efficiency

The

thermodynamic efficiency of a Brayton cycle

can be defined using enthalpy changes
between various points inside a gas plant as:

48

Brayton Thermodynamic Efficiency

Alternatively,

the efficiency of a Brayton cycle

can also be expressed in terms of pressure
ratios and the thermodynamic properties of air
and combustion products.
Brayton efficiency equations says that for a
high cycle efficiency, the pressure ratio of
the cycle should be increased.
See figure below the effects of increased
pressure
49

Methods to Improve Efficiency

The

efficiency of a Brayton engine can be

improved in the following manners:
Intercooling, wherein the working fluid passes through a first stage
of compressors, then a cooler, then a second stage of compressors before
entering the combustion chamber. While this requires an increase in the fuel
consumption of the combustion chamber, this allows for a reduction in the
specific volume of the fluid entering the second stage of compressors, with
an attendant decrease in the amount of work needed for the compression
stage overall. There is also an increase in the maximum feasible pressure
ratio due to reduced compressor discharge temperature for a given amount
of compression, improving overall efficiency.

50

Methods to Improve Efficiency

Regeneration,

wherein the still-warm postturbine fluid is passed through a heat exchanger

to pre-heat the fluid just entering the
combustion chamber. This directly offsets fuel
consumption for the same operating conditions
improving efficiency; it also results in less power
lost as waste heat.

51

Methods to Improve Efficiency

A

Brayton engine also forms half of the

combined cycle system, which combines with
a Rankine engine to further increase overall
efficiency.
Cogeneration systems make use of the waste
heat from Brayton engines, typically for hot
water production or space heating.
52

Methods to Increase Power

The

power output of a Brayton engine can be

improved in the following manners:
Reheat, wherein the working fluidin most cases airexpands
through a series of turbines, then is passed through a second
combustion chamber before expanding to ambient pressure through a
final set of turbines. This has the advantage of increasing the power
output possible for a given compression ratio without exceeding any
metallurgical constraints (typically about 1000C). The use of an
afterburner for jet aircraft engines can also be referred to as reheat, it is
a different process in that the reheated air is expanded through a thrust
nozzle rather than a turbine.

53

Methods to Increase Power

54

The metallurgical constraints are somewhat alleviated enabling

much higher reheat temperatures (about 2000C).
The use of reheat is most often used to improve the specific
power (per throughput of air) and is usually associated with a
reduction in efficiency, this is most pronounced with the use of
afterburners due to the extreme amounts of extra fuel used.

Trend of Brayton cycle thermal efficiency

with compressor pressure ratio

55

Basic Gas Generator

56

Basic Gas Generator

Shaft

could provide power take off for electric

generator, ship propulsion, etc.
Compressor and turbine could be axial or
radial.

57

Altitude Vs. Mach Number

58

Turbojet Systems

59

Turbojet Systems
Output

of gas turbine passed through exhaust

nozzle and used entirely for thrust.
High subsonic and supersonic.
Developed by the British - Wiggins Co., Rolls
Royce, Parsons, Bristol Engines, ABB, SIEMENS

60

Turbojet Systems
And

the Germans - Junkers, BMW,

Messerschmidt in 1930s and 1940s.

General

Electric (GE) started US production in

1942 in Massachusetts, today with a production
facilities in Angola and Egypt
designs from Frank Whittle who had
a centrifugal compressor.

Original

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So, who is Sir Frank Whittle?

62

Sir Frank Whittle

Air

Commodore, OM, KBE, CB, FRS, Hon FRAeS

Born in Earlsdon, CoventryNRL, United Kingdom
on 1st June 1907 Died 9th August 1996
Was a British Royal Air Force (RAF) Officer.
Sharing credit with Germany's Dr. Hans von
Ohain for independently Inventing the Jet
Engine,
63

He

is hailed as a Father of Jet Propulsion.

Whittle W2/700 Turbojet Engine - 1943

64

Whittles Contributions
Frank

65

Whittle, Royal Air Force, patented a jet

engine in 1930.
Axial PLUS centrifugal compression, 2-stage
turbine.
Free vortex turbine blade design.
Host of mechanical and thermal challenges, not
too reliable.
Whittle considered high temperature ceramic
blades.

Real Engineers! See Real Engines!

Eng.

Nkumbwa visits Sir Frank Whittle birth

place and invention centre in Rugby,
Coventry UK.
See Living evidence below

66

Sir Frank Whittle

MIT

Video Lecture on Sir Frank Whittle Jet

Engine Invention in Coventry, England
Engineer Nkumbwa visits Sir Frank Whittle
birth place in Rugby Coventry, England
2006.

67

Turbojet Operation
Output

68

of gas turbine passed through exhaust

nozzle and used entirely for thrust.
High subsonic and supersonic.
Developed by the British (Wiggins Co., Rolls
Royce, Parsons, Bristol Engines)
And the Germans (Junkers, BMW,
Messerschmidt) in 1930s and 1940s.
GE started US production in 1942 in
Massachusetts.

T-s Block Diagram for a TBJET

69

Turbofan
Exhaust

70

passes through additional turbine stage

to power a ducted fan that accelerates
A large stream of air passing around the core.
Typically flow through the outer part of the fan is
5-6 times that flowing through the engine core
(compressor).
Thrust from both hot gases leaving the nozzle
and from the cold by-pass flow.
Bypass ratio = flow through fan / Flow through
engine Type values: 0 -10

71

72

Turbofan Operation

73

Turbofan Operation

74

75

T-s Diagram for a Turbofan

76

Turboprop Operation

77

Turboprop Operation
Actually

developed prior to the turbofan.

Rate of airflow through the prop may be 25-30
times that through the engine.
Gear box necessary for both lower prop speed
and higher turbine speed.
At higher speeds, tip losses considerable.
Also called a Turbo shaft engine to power
helicopter or marine.
78

79

Ramjet Engine

80

Ramjet Engines
Air-breathing

engine similar to a turbojet but

without the mechanical compressor or turbine.
Compression is accomplished entirely by ram air
and it is thus sensitive to vehicle forward speed.
No thrust at rest.
Subsonic combustion, interior air slowed to
subsonic speed for combustion.
Mach number: 3~6
81

Scramjet Engines

82

Scramjet Engines
Supersonic

combustion ramjet. The flow

through the combustor is still supersonic.
Strange and tricky combustion dynamics.
Typically hydrogen fuels.
Mach number >5+

83

Combined Ramjet and Scramjet

Engine

84

Rocket Engine

85

Internal forces to Create Thrust

86

Thrust Force Analysis

The

thrust from a jet engine is not as easy to

assess as a rocket.
Thrust and drag forces occur throughout the
engine.
Del-P across compressor stages helps push
engine forward.

87

Internal Pressure & Thrust Distribution

Single

88

Shaft Turbo Engine

89

Power to Weight Ratio

Look

at the following Case Study for the

Proflight Zambia Airlines which operates
between Lusaka and Copperbelt

90

91

Gas Turbines Engine Manufacturers

General

Electric (GE) - Ecomagination

Rolls-Royce
Platt & Whitney (PW)
ABB
SIEMENS

92

Gas Turbine Engine Pressure Ratios

See

93

the next slide

94

Gas Turbines Advantages

They

operate at high temperatures.

They can and are capable of meeting peak
load demands.
They are compact and easy to operate, and
take advantage of aerospace propulsion
applications.
They operate at relatively low pressures.
95

Gas Turbines Advantages

Many

installations burn natural gas, or in dual

fuel mode burning NG and/or oil.
They do not handle wet gases, and are not as
vulnerable to corrosion as steam turbines.
Combustion Gas Turbines do not require heat
transfer equipment on the low-temperature side,
and no coolant either
96

Gas Turbines Limitations

They

have relatively low efficiency since their

maximum temperature is limited by material.
Their efficiency is low because of the high
compressor work, and low efficiency of
compressors.

97

Gas Turbines Limitations

Open

cycle turbines are limited by the high

exhaust temperature, which limits the turbine
work.
They cannot be used with dirty fuels, such
as coal, since sulfur oxides can damage their
blades.

98

Steam or Rankine Cycle

Steam,

or Vapor Rankine Cycles overcome some

of these limitations, and hence have been very
popular in electric power generation.
All steam cycle plants are modeled using what is
known as Rankine cycle.
Steam cycle can be constructed using closed and
open cycles.
Open cycle require dumping exit steam into
environment and so is restricted to 100 degree
Celsius.
99

Rankine Cycle Plants

Modern

steam cycle plants consist of a boiler

which generates steam using the energy
provided by coal, oil, gas or nuclear fuels.
In addition they have a feed water pump that
pumps the fully condensed steam exiting the
condenser to the boiler at high pressure.

10

Rankine Efficiency
Efficiencies

are very low in such arrangement.

Modern steam plants are based on a closed
cycle arrangement that uses a condenser to cool
the waste steam, an innovation that was
originally conceived and designed by James
Watt.

10

Rankine Efficiency
Here

overall efficiency is the electrical output

from the turbine generator minus the energy
needed to operate the feed water pump and
frictional losses in the turbine generator.
The steam cycle efficiency in this case is defined
by the following equation:

10

Rankine Efficiency
Modern

steam plants achieve steam cycle

efficiencies of 30-45%.
It is possible to raise efficiencies by maximizing
the inlet steam enthalpy, but these are limited
due to engineering constraints.

10

Components of a Rankine Cycle

10

T-s Diagram of Open Rankine Cycle

10

Rankine Power Cycles Operation

A schematic

of the components of a Rankine

cycle is shown in Figure below.

The

cycle is shown on P-v, T-s, and h-s

coordinates.

10

Rankine p-v Coordinates

10

Rankine T-s Coordinates

10

Rankine h-s Coordinates

10

Rankine Cycle Process

The

processes in the Rankine cycle are as

follows:

11

a b: Heat added at constant temperature T2 (constant

pressure), with transition of liquid to vapor
c d: Liquid-vapor mixture condensed at temperature
T1 by extracting heat.
d e: Cold liquid at initial temperatureT1 is pressurized
reversibly to a high pressure by a pump. In this, the
volume changes slightly.
e a: Reversible constant pressure heating in a boiler
to temperature T2

Rankine Cycle Process

In

the Rankine cycle, the mean temperature

at which heat is supplied is less than the
maximum temperature, T2 , so that the
efficiency is less than that of a Carnot cycle
working between the same maximum and
minimum temperatures.

11

Rankine Cycle Process

The

heat absorption takes place at constant

pressure over eab, but only the part ab is
isothermal.
The heat rejected occurs over cd; this is at both
constant temperature and pressure.

11

Rankine Cycles Advantages

Fuel

flexible, works well with coal (closed

cycle).
High efficiency, low pumping power.
Lower flow rate (latent enthalpy).
Run at low T (works with geothermal and
solar), but high p.

11

Rankine Cycles Advantages

Works

11

well with nuclear energy:

Pressurized : T = 350 C
Boiling : T = 400-500 C
Gas Cooled R: T = 600-800 C
High Temperature GR T > 800 C

Rankine Cycle Disadvantages

High

inertia, good for base load but not for

load following.
Require cooling, big condensers, .. Water
Find bellow the Efficiency levels of Current
Power plants

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11

11

Combined Cycles
Recent

11

years have seen a growth of plants

employing Rankine and Brayton cycles.
Such plants are called combined cycle plants.
Rather than venting the hot exhaust gas from the
Brayton cycle into the atmosphere there are
plant designs that use this heat for other
purposes using heat recovery steam generators.
This has resulted in overall efficiencies
reaching as high as 50 to 55%.

Combined Cycle

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Combined cycles take advantage of high T gas

turbine exhaust. Combined cycle efficiency:

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Wrap up
Any

more worries
God help u

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