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ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
Its not widely used now but still it cannot be replaced by other type of
measuring instruments (like digital measuring instruments) in some
applications like ammeters, voltmeters in laboratories.
Classified as
Indicating Instruments
Recording Instruments
Integrating Instruments
Indicating Instruments:
These are which indicate the magnitude of a quantity being measured by using a dial and
poiner arrangement
Recording Instruments:
These instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being measured over a
period using a pen attached to moving system.
Example: Reading Voltmeters in a substation (An out-dated method for storing voltage
for a period of time. Now using SCADA computers)
Integrating Instruments:
These instruments totalize the events over a period i.e., the output of such
instruments are the product of time and electrical quantity.
Example: An household Energy meter which gives the power consumed in a interval of
time.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Magnetic effect
Heating effect
Electrostatic effect
Electromagnetic effect
Hall effect
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
(CONTD.,)
Magnetic effect:
The effect due to the current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
Current to be measured is made to pass through a element which gets heated and
this rise in temperature is measured by a thermocouple.
Electrostatic effect:
When two plates are charged, there is a force exerted b/w them which moves one
of the plates.
Electromagnetic effect:
The force produced by this induced current and the alternating field moves disc.
Used in: household Energy meters (now using digital energy meters )
Hall effect:
OPERATING FORCES
Deflecting force
Damping force
Deflecting force:
Its the force required for moving the pointer from zero position.
The system producing deflecting force is called deflecting system which converts
electric current into mechanical force which deflects the point by any of the
operating principles(i.e., Hall effect, thermal effect, etc.,) as discussed earlier.
Controlling force:
Opposing force to the deflecting force produced by the system is called controlling
force:
Main functions:
To produce equal and opposite force to deflecting force in order to make deflection of
definite magnitude.
Damping force:
Deflecting and controlling force produced by the systems which have inertia
which doesnt allow system to settle in short period of time.
So, in order to bring the system to rest during short span, there is a damping
system which provides necessary damping force.
Ammeters with low electrical resistance are connected in series with the
circuit.
Voltmeters with high electrical resistance are connected in parallel with the
circuit.
Out of 8 types PMMC can be used only for D.C. measurements only.
PRINCIPLE
As coil in the instrument is moving and the magnet is a permanent magnet, its called
as permanent magnet moving coil instrument.
Amount of force experienced by the coil is proportional to the current passint through
the coil.
TORQUE EQUATION
TORQUE EQUATION(CONTD.,)
From above equation we can infer that the deflection of pointer is proportional
to the current
ADVANTAGES
High sensitivity
Effective damping
High accuracy
DISADVANTAGES
Cost is high
Classification are:
Fixed
Movable
TORQUE EQUATION
HYSTERESIS ERROR
This is due to difference in the value of flux density for same current for ascending
and descending values.
This can be minimised by making iron parts smaller so that hey demagnetise quickly
TEMPERATURE ERROR
Its due to effect of temperature on the temperature co-efficient of spring and due to
heating of coils
Since operating field of this type of instrument is very low, its easily disturbed by
external fields
FREQUENCY ERROR
For this reason the moving iron type instruments is not used above 125Hz