CVE 347

Cross Sections, Horizontal and

Vertical Curves
Natacha Thomas

Cross Section Elements

Cross Section Elements

Cross Section Elements - Right of Way

Right-of-way

definition: total land area acquired for the

construction of the highway

40 - 60 ft (2-lane urban collector)

84 ft (2-lane urban arterial)
92 - 292 ft (divided arterials without frontage roads)

Cross Section Elements - Median

Medians

Functions:
recovery area for out-ofcontrol vehicles
separates opposite
flows
stopping area during
emergency
storage area for left
turning and u-turning
vehicles.
pedestrian refuge
reduces headlight glare
temporary travel lanes
and cross over lanes

Width: 4 - 80 ft

Physical characteristics
raised (urban arterial
streets)
flushed (urban arterial
or freeway + barriers)
depressed (freeway)

Cross Section Elements Travel

Lane
Travel lanes (capacity, level of
service, and safety impacts)

Physical Characteristics

Width:
Urban Arterials

10 - 12 ft
Rural Arterials

12 ft
Urban Collector

10 12 ft
Rural Collector

10 12 ft
Local Urban

10 12 ft (ADT and speed)

9 ft auxiliary

9 ft residential
Local Rural

9 12 ft (ADT and speed)

Recommended Practice
Use 12 ft lanes for high-type
highways. (higher construction
cost offset by lower
maintenance cost)
Place wider lane at curb to
accommodate large vehicles
and bicycles, and provide
adequate curb clearance.
10 12 ft lanes can be use in
urban areas to accommodate
pedestrians, limit right-of-way,
and slow down traffic.

9 ft lanes can be use on

low volume facilities in rural
and residential areas.
Intersection auxiliary lanes
should be as wide as through
lanes, but not less than 10 ft.
Continuous two-way left turn
lanes should be 10 16 ft
wide.

Cross Section Elements Cross

Slopes

Cross Section Elements Cross Slopes

Cross Slopes

Function: facilitate drainage of

paved surface
Minimize ponding of water
on pavement with flat
profile grades given
imperfections or settlement
Confine water to narrow
width of pavement adjacent
to curb.

Detriment: Vehicles tend to drift

toward the low edge of
pavement given high cross
slopes and icy conditions.

Practical applications:
undivided highways are sloped
from middle downward with
plane or curved sections,
divided highway are crowned in
each direction or sloped in
each travel direction

Recommended rates:
Rural Collectors:
1.5 2.0 % (high type pavement)
(two first lanes adjacent to
crown) (increase rate by 0.5 to
1.0 % for each successive pair
of lanes)
2.0 6.0 % (low type pavement)
Urban Collectors
1.5 3.0 %
Rural Arterials
1.5 2.0 % (divided)
Urban Arterials
1.5 2.0 %
3 % (outer auxiliary lanes)

Cross Section Elements Shoulders

Shoulders (contiguous to the
traveled way)

Definitions:
Graded width of shoulder
distance measured from edge of
traveled way to hinge point
(intersection of shoulder and fore
slope)
Usable shoulder width Actual
width used for parking or
emergency, as decreased by
rounding.

Functions:
accommodate stopped vehicles,
bicyclists (right shoulder)
allow for evasive maneuvers to
prevent crashes (right and median)
temporary travel lane for
emergency use (right shoulder)
lateral support of sub-base, base
and surface course

Other advantages:
provide a sense of openness that
promotes driving ease and reduced
stress,
improve sight distance, hence safety, in cut
sections,
enhance highway aesthetics,

facilitate snow removal and storage,

storm water discharged farther from
traveled way,
encourage uniform speed, hence
enhance capacity and safety.

Physical characteristics
Surface:
Surface: fully or partially paved, or
unpaved
Width: 8 - 12 ft (right shoulder)
4 ft (divided arterial, less than
3 lanes in each
direction, median
shoulder)
(2 10 ft in difficult terrain, on
bridges, or for low speed highways)

Cross Section Elements - Shoulders

Cross Section Elements - Shoulders

Recommended Practice:
place flush with the surface
and abutting traveled way,
slope to drain water away
from traveled way, (on both
sides of divided highways
with depressed medians),
median shoulder may slope in
direction of traveled way
(narrow raised median)
slope to rapidly drain surface
water without restricting
vehicular use.

provide wide shoulders,

turnouts, intermittently in
bad terrain.
Cross slope:
2 - 6 % (bituminous or
concrete surface)
4 - 6 % (gravel or crushedrock surface)

Cross Section Elements Curbs and

gutters
Curbs

Functions:

delineate pavement edge

and pedestrian walkway,
control drainage
improve aesthetics
reduce right-of-way
Recommended Practice
Use for low speed urban
highways.
Exercise caution in use for
high speed rural highways.
Locate (sloping curbs only) at
outside edge of shoulder.

Configuration
Vertical curbs (discourage
vehicles from leaving
roadway)
Sloping curbs (allow
vehicle crossing in
emergency) (median,
intersection island, outer
shoulder edge)

Gutters

Function: principal drainage

facility for the highway
Width: 1.0 to 6.0 ft
Cross slopes: 5.0 8.0 %

Cross Section Elements Curbs and

gutters

Cross Section Elements Barriers,

Guard Rails
Barriers
functions: prevent head-on collisions
protect vehicles from roadside hazards
Guard rails
functions: prevent vehicles from leaving roadbed
(placed outside of sharp curves and sections with
high fills)
warrants: sharp curves, embankments higher than 8
ft, slopes greater than 4:1)

Cross Section Elements - Sidewalks

Sidewalks

Function: provides shelter

for pedestrian, access to
and from pedestrian flow
generators,

Recommended Practice:
urban roads
high speed rural roads with
heavy pedestrian traffic
arterials without shoulder
collectors that serve as
pedestrian access to
schools, parks, shopping,
transit

Width: 4 ft (residential
area)
4 - 8 ft
(commercial area)

Cross Section Elements Side Slopes

Side slopes

Components: top of
slope or hinge point, fore
slope, toe of slope, back
slope.
Functions:
1) ensure the stability of
the roadway and
2) provide a reasonable
opportunity for recovery
for an out-of-control
vehicle

Recommended Range:
1V:3H or flatter (fore
and back slopes)

Maximum Slopes:
6V:1H (in quality rock)

Recommended Practice:
Hinge point must be
rounded.
If slopes are steeper
than 1V:3H,

1) use roadside barrier

2) evaluate soil
stability.

Toe should be located

beyond minimum lateral
distance from edge of
roadway needed for
recovery.

Cross Section Elements Side

Slopes

Cross Section Elements Side

Slopes

Mixed Vehicular and Driver

Characteristics - Stopping Sight Distance
(AASHTO)
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances
1.
Brake reaction distance, the distance traveled (during perception
reaction time) from the instant the driver sights an object
necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied.
2.
Braking distance, the distance needed to stop the vehicle from
the instance the brake application begins.

Mixed Vehicular and Driver

Characteristics - Stopping Sight Distance
(AASHTO)

Mixed Vehicular and Driver

Characteristics - Stopping Sight Distance
(AASHTO)

6.a. General Roadway

Characteristics
Available Sight
Distance (the length of
a roadway a driver can
see ahead at any
particular time - should
enable a driver traveling
at the design speed to
perform all necessary
evasive maneuvers
without colliding with an
object located in the
vehicles path )

Stopping Sight
distance (minimum
distance required for a
driver to stop a vehicle
after seeing an object in
the vehicles path
without hitting that object
- Stopping Sight
Distance = Stopping
Distance)
Sight Distance >
Stopping Sight
Distance

Horizontal Alignment and Curves

Horizontal Alignment
As the projection of the highway facility on the horizontal plane, It
consists of straight segments, the tangents, connected by horizontal
curves, either simple or transition plus simple curves.

Horizontal Tangents
As directional as possible to connect control points, avoid monotony and
promote driver alertness.

Horizontal curves
They provide for a smooth transition in travel direction from that of a
horizontal tangent to that of another. Their layout vary among the
following curve types.
Simple curves (shaped as circular arc),
Compound curves (combinations of circular arcs of varied radii),
Reverse curves (combinations of circular arcs with centers located on
opposite sides of common tangents),
Spiral curves (clothoid shaped)

Horizontal Curve Types

Simple Curve Layout

Definitions

R = Radius of
Circular Curve,
I = Deflection Angle,
T = Tangent Length,
M = Middle Ordinate,
PC = Point of Curve,
PT = Point of
Tangent,
PI = Point of
Intersection.

Simple Curve Layout

Definitions:
D (arc definition) angle subtended by a 100 ft
long arc (mostly used in road design).
D (chord definition) angle subtended by a 100
ft long chord (mostly used in railway design).

Simple Curve Formulas

Horizontal Curve-Minimum Radius

Horizontal Curve-Minimum Radius

Horizontal Curve-Minimum Radius

Horizontal Curve-Minimum Radius

Horizontal Curve-Minimum Radius

Horizontal Curve-Minimum Radius

Horizontal Curve-Minimum Radius

Horizontal Curve-Minimum Radius

Sample problem

Simple Curve Layout

by deflection angles and chords

Usually set out by staking points on the curves using

deflection angles, measured from the tangent at the
point of curve, and the length of the chords joining
consecutive whole stations.
The first and the last deflection angles stake points on
the curve located at the first whole station and at the
end of curve. (The corresponding arc lengths, s1 and
s2, are less than 100 feet.)
The deflection angle to each station equals half the
central angle intercepting the arc.

Curve layout by deflection

angles and chords

Curve Layout by Deflection

Angle
1 1 D
D
2
, ,..., 1 ...
2 2 2
2 2
2

Sample Problem

Alignment Notes

Sample Problem (metric)

Sample Problem (metric)

Sample Problem (metric)

Sample Problem (metric)

Definition
Tangent Runout: Length of roadway required to
move from a section with normal crown to a
section with adverse crown removed. (To be
achieved on the tangent.)
Superelevation Runoff: Length of roadway
required to move from a section with adverse
crown removed to a section fully superelevated
and vice versa. (To be achieved on the spiral
when present. Otherwise, approximately 2/3 is
achieved on the tangent and 1/3 on the simple
curve.)

Superelevation Attainment

Superelevation Runoff Length

Maximum Relative Gradient

Adjustment factor for lane number

Tangent Runout Length

Examples
Given a horizontal curve with a 410 m radius,
estimate the minimum length of spiral necessary
for a smooth transition from tangent alignment to
the circular curve. The design speed is 90 km/hr
The superelevation rate is 0.084. Prepare a plot
showing the ordinates required for the transition
from the tangent section to the full
superelevated section assuming that the
pavement is 7.3 m wide.

CVE 240
Chapter 25
Vertical Curves
Natacha Thomas

Vertical Alignment - Grades

Maximum grades (vehicle/truck
consideration) varies with design
vehicle, highway classification and
design speed.

5%, 110 km/h (70 mph) design

speed
7% 8%, 50 km/h (30 mph) design
speed (important highways)
7% - 12%, 50 km/h (30 mph) design
speed, depending on terrain

Minimum grades (drainage

consideration)

0.0 %, uncurbed pavement with

adequate cross slopes,
0.3 % high-type curbed pavement,
0.5 % curbed pavement.

Critical length of grades

Definition: Maximum length of a

designated upgrade on which a
loaded truck can operate without
an unreasonable reduction in
speed.
Common practice: length of
upgrade that would result in a 25
km/h (15 mph) reduction in
speed.

Symmetrical Vertical Curves

Purpose: provide a
gradual change in
grade from the back
tangent to the forward
tangent.
Types:

Crest curves
Sag curves

Curve Types

Symmetrical Vertical Curve

Symmetrical Vertical Curve

Vertical Curve Formulas

Formulas

Crest Curve Lengths

Minimum requirement based on sight
distance
Maximum requirement based on drainage
(K < 51, metric; or K < 167, US customary)
Absolute minimum length (L > 0.6V,
metric; or L > 0.3V, US customary)

Crest Curves - Length as Sight

Distance Function

Crest Curves - Length as Sight

Distance Function

Minimum Lengths of Crest Vertical

Curves

Minimum Lengths of Crest Vertical

Curves (SSD based)

Minimum Lengths of Crest Vertical

Curves (SSD based)

Sag Curve Lengths

Minimum requirement based on sight distance
Maximum requirement based on drainage (K <
51, metric; or K (also called r) < 167, US
customary)
Minimum requirement based on comfort (L >
AV2/395, metric; or L > AV2/46.5, US customary)
Minimum requirement based on aesthetics (K >
30, metric; or K < 100, US customary)
Absolute minimum length (L > 0.6V, metric; or L
> 0.3V, US customary)

Sag Curves - Length as Sight

Distance Function

Minimum Lengths of Sag Vertical

Curves

Minimum Lengths of Sag Vertical

Curves

Minimum Lengths of Sag Vertical

Curves

Example

Example

Sample Problem

Homework
1. Two intersecting profile grade lines consist of a +5 percent grade meeting a -4 percent grade at Sta. 92 + 00, and the length of
vertical curve is 800 ft (8 stations).
(a) What is the rate of change of grade? Ans. -1.125.
(b) What is the offset (e) from PI to the middle of the curve? Ans. -9.00 ft.
(c) What is the tangent offset locating Sta. 90 + 00 on the curve? Ans. -2.25 ft.
(d) Calculate elevations to the nearest hundredth for the full stations along the curve.
2. Two intersecting profile grades consist of a -3 percent grade meeting a +5 percent grade at Sta. 112 + 00 whose elevation is
74.50 ft. The length of curve is 6 stations.
(a) What is the rate of change of grade? What is the offset from the PI to the curve? Ans. r = 1.333; e = 6.00 ft.
(b) What is the elevation of Sta. 111 + 00 on the curve? Ans. 680.17 ft.
(c) Calculate elevations to the nearest hundredth for the full stations along the curve.
3. A +6 percent grade meets a +2 percent grade at Sta. 49 + 00 whose elevation is 842.20 ft, and the length of curve is 4 stations.
(a) What is the rate of change of grade? What is the offset from the PI to the curve? Am. r = -1.00; e = -2.00 ft.
(b) What is the elevation of Sta. 50 + 00 on the curve? Ans. 843.70 ft.
(c) Calculate elevations to the nearest hundredth for the full stations along the curve.
4. A -6 percent grade meets a +4 percent grade at Sta. 160 + 00 whose elevation is 400.20 ft, and the length of curve is 8
stations.
(a) What is the elevation of the middle point of curve? Ans. 410.20 ft.
(b) What are the position and the elevation of the low point of curve? Ans. Sta. 160 + 80; 409.80 ft.

Sample Problem

Symmetrical Vertical Curve

Formulas

Formulas