Unit 3: Culture

Culture and various Definitions of

Culture
Patterns of Culture
Culture and Society
Development of culture: Cultural
Universals; Innovation; Diffusion
Types of culture
Elements of culture: Language; Norms;
Sanctions; Values

Cultural integration
Cultural diversity: many ways of
life in one world
Culture and dominant ideology
Multiculturalism

Culture and various

Definitions of Culture

Culture (from the Latin cultura,

meaning "to cultivate") generally refers
to patterns of human activity and the
symbolic structures that give such
activities significance and importance.
Culture can be defined as all the ways
of life including arts, beliefs and
institutions of a population that are
passed down from generation to
generation.

Patterns of Culture

Cultures include two major types of

pattern: Ideal patterns and
Behavioral patterns.
Ideal patterns define what the
people of a society would do or say
in particular situations if they
conformed completely to the
standards set up by their culture.

Behavioral patterns on the other

hand are derived from
observations of how people
actually behave in particular
situations.
Kluckhohn suggested five
categories of ideal patterns:

Compulsory, where the culture provides

but one acceptable means of meeting
certain situations.
Preferred, Where several ways of
behaving are acceptable, but one is more
highly valued than the rest.
Typical, where several ways of behaving
are more or less equally acceptable, but
one is more often expressed than the rest.

Alternative, where several ways

of behaving are acceptable, and
there is no difference either in
value or frequency of expression.
Restricted, where certain ways
of behaving are acceptable only
for some members of a society,
not for the society as a whole.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM

The viewing of peoples behavior from the

perspective of their own culture.
Different cultural groups think, feel, and
act differently. There are no scientific
standards for considering one group as
intrinsically superior or inferior to another.
Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's
own culture is superior to that of other
cultures.

LAYERS OF CULTURE

The national level: Associated with

the nation as a whole.
The regional level: Associated with
ethnic, linguistic, or religious
differences that exist within a nation.
The gender level: Associated with
gender differences (female vs. male)

The generation level: Associated with

the differences between grandparents
and parents, parents and children.
The social class level: Associated with
educational opportunities and
differences in occupation.
The corporate level: Associated with
the particular culture of an organization.
Applicable to those who are employed.

Culture and Society

Sociologist W.F. Ogburn (1922) made

a useful distinction between elements
of material and non-material culture.
Material culture refers to the
physical or technological aspects of
our daily lives, including food
items, houses, factories, and raw
materials.

Non-material culture refers to

ways of using material objects and
to customs, beliefs, philosophies,
governments, and patterns of
communication.
Sharing a similar material and nonmaterial culture helps to define the
group to which we belong.

Cultural universals

G. Murdock compiled a list of cultural

universals that include: Athletic sports,
Body adornment, Calendar, Cooking,
Courtship, Dancing, Decorative art, Family,
Folklore, Food habits, Food taboos, Funeral
ceremonies, Games, Gestures, Gift giving,
Hairstyles, Housing, Language, laws,
marriage, medicines, Music, Myths,
Numerals, Personal names, property rights,
religion, sexual restrictions, Tool making,
Trade etc.

Diffusion

Sociologists use the term diffusion to

refer to the process by which a cultural
item is spread from group to group or
society to society.
Diffusion can occur through a variety of
means, among them exploration, military
work, pilgrimage, trade, the influence of
the mass media, tourism etc.
Diffusion may take place over extremely
long distances.

Culture Lag

Ogburn also introduced the term

Culture Lag to refer to the period
of maladjustment during which the
nonmaterial culture is still adapting
to new material conditions.

Corporate culture

One can tell the culture of an organization

by looking at the arrangement of furniture,
what they talk about, dress code, etc.
can be looked at as a system of inputs and
outputs.
Inputs include feedback from, e.g., society,
professions, laws, values, or service, etc.
Outputs or effects of our culture are, e.g.,
organizational behaviors, products,
strategies, technologies, image, services,
appearance, etc.

Types of Culture

There are different types of culture just

like there are different types of
personality. Jeffrey identified the
following four types of cultures:
Academy culture
Baseball team culture
Club culture
Fortress(castle) culture

Elements of culture

Language: Language tells us a great

deal about a culture.
Language is an abstract system of word
meanings and symbols for all aspects of
culture.
Language includes speech, written
characters, numerals, symbols, and
gestures of nonverbal communication.
Language, of course, is not an
exclusively human attribute.

Language is of interest to all three

sociological perspectives. Functionalists
emphasize the important role of language
in unifying members of a society. By
contrast, conflict theorists focus on the
use of language to perpetuate divisions
between groups and societies.
Interactionists study how people rely
upon shared definitions of phrases and
expressions in both formal speech and
everyday conversation.

Norms

All societies have ways of encouraging and

enforcing what they view as appropriate
behavior while discouraging and punishing
what they consider to be improper conduct.
Norms are established standards of
behavior maintained by a society. Norms
are classified as either formal or informal.
Formal norms have generally been written
down and involve strict rules for
punishment of violators.

Often norms are formalized into laws, which

must be very precise in defining proper and
improper behavior. Laws are an example of
formal norms.
Law is the body of rules, made by
government for society, interpreted by the
courts, and backed by the power of the state.
Informal norms are generally understood
but are not precisely recorded. Proper dress
standards are an example of informal norms.

Mores

Mores are strict norms that control

moral and ethical behavior. Mores are
norms based on definitions of right and
wrong.
Generally, various countries have strong
mores against murder, treason, and
child abuse and these have often been
institutionalized into formal norms.

Folkways; customs

Folkways are norms governing everyday

behavior whose violation raises
comparatively little concern. For
example, walking up a down escalator
in a public place challenges our
standards of appropriate behavior, but it
will not result in a fine or a jail sentence.
Cultural forms of dress or food habits
are examples of folkways.

Sanctions

Sanctions are punishment and

rewards for conduct concerning a
social norm. Conformity to a norm can
lead to positive sanctions such as a
pay raise, a medal, a word of
gratitude, or a pat at the back.
Negative sanctions include fines,
threats, demotion, or even
imprisonment.

Values

Values are those collective conceptions

of what is considered good, desirable,
and proper bad, undesirable, and
improper in a culture.
Values may be specific, such as
honoring ones parents and owning a
home, or they may be more general,
such as health, love, and democracy.

Cultural integration

Cultural integration refers to the bringing

together of incompatible cultures elements,
resulting in a pleasant whole. In a well
integrated culture, various norms, values,
and customs will support one another and fit
together well.
Even relatively minor aspects of a culture can
play a role in cultural integration. Childrens
games and nursery rhymes undoubtedly
reinforce the norms and values of a culture.

Ceremonies such as weddings, funerals, and

confirmations prepare participants for new
social roles and reduce the shock of change
which might threaten social continuity.
Cultural integration is not always the result
of agreement by all members of a culture.
Often this process is enforced from the top;
less powerful members of society have to
accept the dictates and values of those in
control.

Cultural Variation

Each culture has a unique character.

Cultures adapt to meet specific sets
of circumstances, such as climate,
level of technology, population, and
geography. This adaptation is
evident in differences in all elements
of culture, including norms,
sanctions, values, and language.

Aspects of Cultural
variation

Subcultures: A subculture is a segment of

society which shares a distinctive pattern of
mores, folkways, and values which differs
from the pattern of the larger society. In a
sense, a subculture is a culture existing
within a larger, dominant culture.
Subcultures may be based on common age
(teenagers), region, ethnicity, occupation,
and political or religious beliefs.

Countercultures: A subculture
that rejects societal norms or
values and seeks alternative
lifestyles. Countercultures are
typically popular among the young,
who have the least investment in
the existing culture, such as
hippies, skinheads or punks.

Culture Shock: When immersed in an

unfamiliar culture, a person may feel
strangely disoriented, uncertain, out of
place, even fearful. These are all
indications that he may be experiencing
culture shock. For example some one from
the strict Islamic country may be shocked
upon first seeing the provocative dress
style and open displays of affection
common in western countries.

Attitudes toward Cultural

Variation

Ethnocentrism: The term refers to

the tendency to assume that ones
culture and way of life is superior to
all others. The ethnocentric person
sees his/her own group as the
center of defining point of culture
and views all other cultures as
deviations from what is normal.

Cultural Relativism: While

ethnocentrism evaluates foreign cultures
using the familiar culture of the observer
as a standard of correct behavior, cultural
relativism views peoples behavior from
the perspective of their own culture. It
places a priority on understanding other
cultures, rather than dismissing them as
strange or exotic.

Xenocentrism: It is the belief that

the products, styles, or ideas of
ones society are inferior to those
that originate elsewhere. In a
sense it is a reverse
ethnocentrism.

Culture and the dominant

ideology

The term dominant ideology is

used to describe a set of cultural
beliefs and practices that help to
maintain powerful social,
economic, and political interest.