Fundamentals of Material

Removal
Chapter 1

Material Removal Processes

A family of shaping operations, the common
feature of which is removal of material from a
starting workpart so the remaining part has the
desired geometry
Machining material removal by a sharp
cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
Abrasive processes material removal by
hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy
forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material

Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

(a) A crosssectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).

Why Machining is Important

Variety of work materials can be machined

Most frequently used to cut metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

Disadvantages with Machining

Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming

Machining in Manufacturing Sequence

Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
Other processes create the general shape
of the starting workpart
Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create

Assignment No. 1
Perform a literature survey (at least 10 journal
papers published beyond year 2000) to describe
High-Speed Machining, its technical differences
and benefits over Conventional Machining
Processes
Assignments should be hand-written only. Mutually
copied assignments will be cancelled.
Submission deadline: 15-SEP-2014

Speed and Feed

Speed is the relative movement between tool
and w/p, which produces a cut
Feed is the relative movement between tool
and w/p, which spreads the cut

Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Other machining operations:
Shaping and planing
Broaching
Sawing

Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape

http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xl5pua_cnc-machining-5-axis_school

Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of
a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges

http://www.wimp.com/squareholes/

Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across
work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling

(c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.

http://www.wimp.com/machiningcnc/

Cutting Tool Classification

1. Single-Point Tools
One dominant cutting edge
Point is usually rounded to form a nose
radius
Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
More than one cutting edge
Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple
cutting edge tools

Cutting Tools

(a) A singlepoint tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b)
a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges.

Cutting Conditions in Machining

Three dimensions of a machining process:
Cutting speed v primary motion
Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool
below original work surface
For certain operations, material removal
rate can be computed as
RMR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d =
depth of cut

Cutting Conditions for Turning

Speed (m/min), feed (mm/rev), and depth of cut (mm) in

turning.

Roughing vs. Finishing

In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part, followed by one or two
finishing cuts
Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting workpart
Creates shape close to desired geometry,
but leaves some material for finish cutting
High feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - completes part geometry
Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds

Machine Tools
A powerdriven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
Functions in machining:
Holds workpart
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power at speed, feed, and depth
that have been set
The term is also applied to machines that
perform metal forming operations

Orthogonal Cutting Model

Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately

Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a threedimensional process.

Chip Formation

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting
from toolchip friction.

Chip Formation
The mean chip thickness can be obtained by
measuring the length, l, weight, W, of a piece of
chip. The mean thickness, t2, is then

where p =density of work material and w = width of

chip = width of cut
The thickness ratio is the ratio of the undeformed
chip thickness to the deformed chip thickness,
namely, r =t1/t2, with r<1.

Chip Formation
Shear plane angle () is
the angle formed between
the direction of movement
of the workpiece and the
shear plane represented by
the line OD, from the tool
edge to the position where
chip leaves the work
surface.
The chip is assumed to
form by shear along the
shear plane

The relationship between shear angle,

chip thickness and velocities

Chip Formation

Plastic Deformation The Shear Strain

To derive an expression for the shear strain, the

deformation can be idealized as a process of block
slip or slip planes

Plastic Deformation The Shear Strain

Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

1.
2.
3.
4.

Discontinuous chip
Continuous chip
Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
Serrated chip

Discontinuous Chip
Brittle work materials
Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth
of cut
High toolchip friction

Continuous Chip
Ductile work materials
High cutting speeds
Small feeds and
depths
Sharp cutting edge
Low toolchip friction

http://www.wimp.com/cuttingsteel/

Continuous with BUE

Ductile materials
Lowtomedium cutting
speeds
Tool-chip friction
causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically

Serrated Chip
Semicontinuous saw-tooth
appearance
Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds

Power and Energy Relationships

A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force;
and v = cutting speed

F
v
c
H
P
c
3,0

Power and Energy Relationships

In U.S. customary units, power is traditional

expressed as horsepower (dividing ftlb/min by
33,000)

where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

P
H
P
c
c

H
P

gE
gE

Power and Energy Relationships

Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or

HPg is given by
or

where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

Typical E for machine tools 90%

P
F
v
c
c
U
=uR
=
tow
M
R

Specific Energy in Machining

Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

Units for specific energy are typically

Nm/mm3 or J/mm3 (inlb/in3)

Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining
is converted into heat
This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the toolchip interface
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained
as elastic energy in the chip

Cutting Temperatures are Important

High cutting temperatures
1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to
the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work material

.C
0
3
t
v
.T
0
4
U
K

Cutting Temperature

Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook

from dimensional analysis using
experimental data for various work materials

where T = temperature rise at toolchip

interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting
speed; to = chip thickness before cut; C =
volumetric specific heat of work material; K =
thermal diffusivity of work material

Cutting Temperature
Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
Most frequently used technique is the
toolchip thermocouple
Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the
speedtemperature relationship to be of the
form:
T = K vm
where T = measured toolchip interface
temperature, and v = cutting speed

Problem No. 1
In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake angle
= -5. The chip thickness before the cut = 0.012 in and the
cut yields a deformed chip thickness = 0.028 in. Calculate
(a) the shear plane angle and (b) the shear strain for the
operation
Solution:
(a)r = t1/t2 = 0.012/0.028 = 0.4286

= tan-1(0.4286 cos -5/(1 - 0.4286 sin -5)) = tan-1(.4116) =

22.37

Problem No. 1

(b) Shear strain:

= cot 22.37 + tan (22.37 (-5)) = 2.430 + 0.518
= 2.948

Problem No. 2
The cutting conditions in a turning operation are: v = 2
m/s, f = 0.25 mm, and d = 3.0 mm. The tool rake angle =
10 which produces a deformed chip thickness t 2 = 0.54
mm. Determine: (a) shear plane angle, (b) shear strain,
and (c) material removal rate. Use the orthogonal cutting
model as an approximation of the turning process.
Solution:
(a)r = t1/t2 = 0.25/0.54 = 0.463

= tan-1(0.463 cos 10/(1 - 0.463 sin 10)) = tan-1(.4959) =

26.4

Problem No. 2
(b)
= cot 26.4 + tan (26.4 - 10) = 2.017 + 0.294 =
2.311
(c) MRR = (2 m/s x 103 mm/m)(0.25mm)(3.0mm)
= 1500 mm3/s

Problem No. 3
In a turning operation on plain carbon steel whose Brinell
hardness = 275 HB, the cutting speed is set at 200 m/min
and depth of cut = 6.0 mm. The lathe motor is rated at 25
kW, and its mechanical efficiency = 90%. Using the specific
energy value as 2.8 N-m/mm 3, determine the maximum feed
that can be set for this operation. Use correction factor of 0.9
Solution:
U = 2.8 N-m/mm 3 = 2.8 J/mm3
MRR = vfd = (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(6 mm)f = 20(103)f mm3/s
Available power Pc = Pg E = 25(103)(0.90) = 22.5 (103) =
22,500W

Problem No. 3
Required power Pc = (2.8 N-m/mm3)( 20 x 103) f =
56,000 f
Setting: available power = required power, 22,500 =
56,000f
f = 22,500/56,000 = 0.402 mm (this should be
interpreted as mm/rev for a turning operation)
For this feed, correction factor = 0.9;
thus U = 2.8(0.90) = 2.52 N-m/mm 3 and an iterative
calculation procedure is required to match the unit
power value with the feed, taking the correction factor
into account.
Required Pc = (2.52)(20 x 103) f = 50,400 f

Problem No. 3
Again setting available power = required power,
22,500 = 50,400 f
f = 22,500/50,400 = 0.446 mm/rev
One more iteration using the correction factor
yields a value around f = 0.45 mm/rev

Problem No. 4
During a turning operation, a tool-chip thermocouple
was used to measure cutting temperature. The following
temperature data were collected during the cuts at three
different cutting speeds (feed and depth were held
constant): (1) v = 100 m/min, T = 505C, (2) v = 130
m/min, T = 552C, (3) v = 160 m/min, T = 592C.
Determine an equation for temperature as a function of
cutting speed that is in the form of the Trigger equation
Solution:
Trigger equation T = KVm
Choose points (1) and (3) and solve simultaneous
equations using T = KVm as the model.

Problem No. 4
(1) 505 = K(100)m and (3) 592 = K(160)m
(1)ln(505) = ln K + m ln(100) and
(2)(3) ln(592) = ln K + m ln(160)
Combining (1) and (3): ln(505) - m ln(100) = ln(592) - m
ln(160)
6.2246 4.6052 m = 6.3835 5.0752 m
0.47 m = 0.1589;
m = 0.338
K = 592/1600.338 = 592/5.561 = 106.45
Check equation with data point (2): T = 106.45(130) 0.338 =
551.87C (pretty close to the given value of 552C)